An analysis of the social, cultural, and ecological factors that affect the implementation of biosecurity measures on smallholder commercial swine farms in Italy in the context of an emerging African Swine Fever outbreak.

African Swine Fever (ASF) is a contagious viral disease that infects wild and domesticated swine. In early 2022, the virus was found in wild boar in the Apennine mountains of mainland Italy.2 Since then, it has spread from wild boar to domesticated swine. To control the spread of ASF, an effective surveillance system and the implementation of strict biosecurity measures on farms are required yet are unevenly implemented across husbandry systems. Smallholder farms in particular are known to have low levels of biosecurity. In the Apennine mountains of Italy, small commercial farms have been found to have low levels of biosecurity despite being located in areas with high densities of wild boar, and, hence, being high-risk sites for potential ASF incursion and subsequent diffusion. To address the question as to why the level of biosecurity is low, interviews and participant observation were conducted with smallholder commercial farmers. The interviews identified the social, cultural, and ecological factors that affect the implementation of biosecurity measures in small commercial swine farms in the Apennines. Farmers expressed knowledge of priority biosecurity measures and an overall willingness to follow rules and regulations; however, the application of the measures in practice was uneven across farms. Economic, political, and ecological factors as well as farmer beliefs about biosecurity emerged as important factors affecting the implementation of biosecurity measures. These include economic constraints, challenges posed by the mountain environment, a shifting regulatory environment, and ideas about animal welfare. Other important factors include cultural factors such as the use of traditional agricultural methods and norms about customer access to animals, time constraints and the perceived hassle of implementing the measures, farmer age, farmer relationships with government officials and veterinarians, and the role of pigs in reducing farm waste. The study confirmed that wild boar are present in high numbers and in close proximity to smallholder commercial farms in the Apennines.

Characterizing the domestic-wild bird interface through camera traps in an area at risk for avian influenza introduction in Northern Italy.

Direct or indirect interactions between sympatric wildlife and poultry can lead to interspecies disease transmission. Particularly, avian influenza (AI) is a viral epidemic disease for which the poultry-wild bird interface shapes the risks of new viral introductions into poultry holdings. Given this background, the study hereby presented aimed to identify wild bird species in poultry house surroundings and characterize the spatiotemporal patterns of these visits. Eight camera traps were deployed for a year (January to December 2021) in 3 commercial chicken layer farms, including free-range and barn-type setups, located in a densely populated poultry area in Northern Italy at high risk for AI introduction via wild birds. Camera traps' positions were chosen based on wildlife signs identified during preliminary visits to the establishments studied. Various methods, including time series analysis, correspondence analysis, and generalized linear models, were employed to analyze the daily wild bird visits. A total of 1,958 camera trap days yielded 5,978 videos of wild birds from 27 different species and 16 taxonomic families. The animals were predominantly engaged in foraging activities nearby poultry houses. Eurasian magpies (Pica pica), ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus), and Eurasian collared doves (Streptopelia decaocto) were the most frequent visitors. Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), an AI reservoir species, were observed only in a farm located next to a fishing sport lake. Time series analysis indicated that wild bird visits increased during spring and winter. Farm and camera trap location also influenced visit frequencies. Overall, the results highlighted specific species that could be prioritized for future AI epidemiological surveys. However, further research is required to assess their susceptibility and infectivity to currently circulating AI viruses, essential for identifying novel bridge hosts.

137Cesium (137Cs) assessment in wild boars from northwestern Italy.

Radionuclide contamination is a serious health issue caused by nuclear experiments and plant accidents, as seen for the Chernobyl and Fukushima nuclear plants. Italy has been especially interested in northwestern alpine regions, as have several other nations. The aim of this work was to indagate 134Cs and 137Cs contamination in wild boars, which were considered bioindicators sampled in the Chisone/Germanasca Valley and the Pellice Valley districts (Piedmont, Italy) in two hunting seasons (2014 and 2016). In the 2014 season, only the livers of the animals (n = 48) were sampled, whereas in 2016, five different anatomical sampling sites were sampled for each animal (n = 16). The analyses were conducted in an accredited laboratory (Agenzia Regionale per la Protezione dell'Ambiente-ARPA) by the aid of an HPGe detector (Ortec) with a relative efficiency of 50%. In general, the contamination levels registered in 2014 were under the detection limit for 134Cs and low for 137Cs (Chisone/Germanasca valley: min: 0.0, max: 23.9 median 11.0 Bq/kg vs Pellice valley: min 0, max: 31.7, median: 9.6 Bq/kg) and no health concern can be supposed. In the first-year samples, the liver showed a negative correlation between age and contamination level. In the second year of sampling, low levels were confirmed (min: 3.1 Bq/kg, max: 113.3; median 17.7 Bq/kg). Multiple sampling from the same animal showed that the diaphragm (median = 27.7 Bq/kg) kidney (27.4) and tongue (27.6) were more contaminated than the liver (17.7) and spleen (15.3). Moreover, a linear mixed model revealed a negative organ-by-age interaction, meaning that interorgan differences in contamination level were greater in younger (5-11 months) than in older (18-36 months) animals. Different feeding habits can be the explanation. Our paper shows that muscle sites (diaphragm and tongue) can be useful for radionuclide pollution surveillance in wild boar populations and that younger animals show more interorgan variability in contamination levels than older animals. More investigations are needed to confirm this correlation and to fulfill the request for more data to achieve better risk assessment.

Correction: Atuahene et al. A Supplement with Bromelain, Lentinula edodes, and Quercetin: Antioxidant Capacity and Effects on Morphofunctional and Fecal Parameters (Calprotectin, Cortisol, and Intestinal Fermentation Products) in Kennel Dogs. Vet. Sci. 2023, 10, 486.

There was an error in the original publication [...].

A Supplement with Bromelain, Lentinula edodes, and Quercetin: Antioxidant Capacity and Effects on Morphofunctional and Fecal Parameters (Calprotectin, Cortisol, and Intestinal Fermentation Products) in Kennel Dogs.

Oxidative stress causes several pathological conditions in humans and animals, including gastrointestinal disorders. The aim of this study was to analyze the antioxidant capacity of three natural powdered raw materials containing quercetin, bromelain, and Lentinula edodes and develop a new feed supplement for dogs using a combination of them. The total phenolic content (TPC), antioxidant activity, DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl), and ABTS (2,2'-Azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) diammonium salt) of the extracts, either individually or in combination, were evaluated colorimetrically. The effects of this supplement on healthy adult dogs' nutritional, inflammatory, and stress status were evaluated. American Staffordshire Terrier adult female dogs (n = 30) were randomly assigned to a control (n = 15) or a treated (n = 15) group. The supplement was added as powder to the food of the treated dogs once daily for 28 days. There was no significant difference in the body weight and body condition scores between the initial and final phases of the experiment. At the end of our study, a significant decrease in fecal calprotectin, cortisol, indole/skatole, and N-methylhistamine and a significant increase in short-chain fatty acids were observed as compared to the control group. In conclusion, this natural feed supplement can be used to improve gastrointestinal health and psycho-physical conditions in dogs.

Semi-Quantitative Risk Assessment of African Swine Fever Virus Introduction in Outdoor Pig Farms.

In a previous study, a semi-quantitative risk assessment was developed to rank pig holdings in terms of likelihood of introducing African swine fever virus (ASFV) by assessing their compliance with biosecurity and exposure to geographical risk factors. The method was initially developed for confined pig holdings, but given that ASF is endemic in wild boar of several countries, we modified the approach to make it suitable for free-range farms as well. In the current study, a total of 41 outdoor pig farms were assessed in an area where exposure to wild boar was generally high (density from 2.3 to 10.3 wild boar per Km2). As expected, non-compliance with biosecurity measures was frequent in outdoor farms, and the frequency of non-compliance indicated that the absence of adequate separation of pigs from the external environment was the major weakness in the farms assessed. In 46.3% of them, there was no fence or, if present, it was not adequate to avoid contact with wild boar. However, the approach adopted proved to be suitable for identifying intervention priorities to mitigate the risk of ASFV spread in free-range pig herds and for identifying the weaknesses of individual farms, as recommended by EFSA in 2021, which suggests implementing tools to improve biosecurity by favoring higher-risk farms.

Semi-quantitative risk assessment of African swine fever virus introduction in pig farms.

A semi-quantitative risk assessment was developed to classify pig farms in terms of the probability of introduction of African swine fever virus (ASFV). Following on-farm data collection via a specific checklist, we applied a modified failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA) to calculate the risk priority codes (RPC's), indicating increasing risk levels ranging from 1 to 5. The importance of biosecurity measures was attributed by experts. To consider geographic risk factors, we classified pig farms based on local density of farmed pigs, and on the estimated wild boar population density. The combination of RPC's with geographical risk factors resulted into a final ranking of pig farms in terms of the risk of ASFV introduction. Furthermore, the estimation of frequency and levels of non-compliance with biosecurity measures was used to identify weak points in risk prevention at farm level. The outcome of the risk assessment was affected by choices in assigning non-compliance scores and importance to specific components of biosecurity. The method was applied in 60 commercial farms in major pig production areas in Italy. Furthermore, we applied a reduced version of our checklist in 12 non-commercial/small commercial (≤20 pigs) farms in the northern Apennines. In commercial farms, highest RPC's were obtained for biosecurity measures associated with personnel practices and farm buildings/planimetry. Intervention should be addressed to training of personnel on biosecurity and ASF, to avoid contacts with other pig herds, and to improve practices in the entrance into the farm. Sharing trucks with other farms, and loading/unloading of pigs were other weak points. Fencing was classified as insufficient in 70% of the commercial farms. Among these farms, breeding units were characterised by the lowest risk of ASFV introduction (although differences among median ranks were not statistically significant: P-value = 0.07; Kruskal-Wallis test), and increasing herd size was not significantly correlated with a higher risk (Kendall's τ = -0.13; P-value = 0.14). Density of farmed pig was greatest in the main pig production area in northern Italy. Conversely, exposure to wild boars was greatest for non-commercial/small commercial farms on the Apennines, which were also characterised by non-compliance with critical biosecurity measures.

Estimates of dairy herd health indicators of mastitis, ketosis, inter-calving interval, and fresh cow replacement in the Piedmont region, Italy.

Test-day milk analysis has largely been used to study health and performance parameters in dairy cows. In this study, we estimated four health indicators of dairy cows using test-day data. Our purpose was to estimate (1) mastitis incidence rate, prevalence, and the probability of recovery; (2) the incidence proportion of ketosis; (3) the duration of inter-calving interval; and (4) the risk of a fresh cow being replaced, in a large cohort of dairy herds in the Piedmont region (Italy). We retrospectively analysed test day records of 261,121 lactating cows and 1315 herds during five years (2015-2020). Mastitis was defined by somatic cell count and ketosis by fat-to-protein ratio. Calving dates were used to calculate ICI and to estimate the removal of a fresh cow from the herd. Mixed-effect generalized linear models were used to adjust for unmeasured herd-level risk factors. The risk of mastitis increased by 120% with parity (Odds ratio [OR] = 2.20, confidence interval [CI]: 2.17 - 2.23), by 7% by months in milking (OR = 1.07, CI: 1.07 - 1.07), and even more if the cow was already affected during the same lactation (OR = 8.74, CI: 8.67 - 8.82). Lactose concentration on the previous test day was the best positive prognostic factor for mastitis recovery (OR = 1.12, CI: 1.08 - 1.17). Ketosis risk was the highest between 3rd and 4th lactations and itself increased the risk of having ICI longer than 440 days (OR = 1.12, CI: 1.02 - 1.22), and fresh-cow removal (OR = 1.75, CI: 1.58 - 1.93). Also, the removal of fresh cows was more likely when mastitis (OR = 1.31, CI: 1.19 - 1.45) or long ICI (OR = 1.34, CI: 1.22 - 1.48) occurred. For each health indicator, herd-level risk factors had an important role (18-56% of within-herd covariance). Our results indicate that milk analysis could be also useful for predicting mastitis, its cure rate, and ketosis. Cow-level risk factors are not enough to explain the risk of these issues. By studying a large population over a long period, this study provides an updated estimate of dairy cow health indicators in Piedmont (north-western Italy), useful for benchmarking dairy herds.

Monitoring Means and Results of Biosecurity in Pig Fattening Farms: Systematic Assessment of Measures in Place and Exploration of Biomarkers of Interest.

Limited data are available regarding animal-based biomarkers over time as outcomes of biosecurity in pig farms. The aim of this study was to gain an insight into the biosecurity implementation in a convenience sample of 15 swine herds, and to describe potential biomarkers of interest; inputs from a systematic evaluation of biosecurity implementation were used to develop tailor-made biosecurity protocols monitored over a 12-month period. The farms' implementation was then described, and animal-based biomarkers were explored as output parameters. A significative biosecurity improvement was observed at the end of the study (p = 0.047), in particular in the professional zone (p = 0.012). Four clusters of farms were identified for their progress on biosecurity implementation by means of Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA): 4/15 farms improved their biosecurity only in the professional zone, 8/15 showed scarce/null improvement of total biosecurity, 2/15 worsened their biosecurity, and 1/15 greatly improved biosecurity. The farm biosecurity profiles showing an improvement included farms with a reduction in lung lesions and scars at slaughter at the end of the study. The results suggest that a systematic evaluation of biosecurity is a useful approach to formulate tailor-made biosecurity plans and monitor their implementation; biomarkers might bring insight into the outcomes of biosecurity.

Occurrence of Methicillin-Resistant Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci (MRCoNS) and Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) from Pigs and Farm Environment in Northwestern Italy.

Swine farming as a source of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has been well documented. Methicillin-resistant coagulase-negative staphylococci (MRCoNS) have been less studied, but their importance as pathogens is increasing. MRCoNS are indeed considered relevant nosocomial pathogens; identifying putative sources of MRCoNS is thus gaining importance to prevent human health hazards. In the present study, we investigated MRSA and MRCoNS in animals and environment in five pigsties in a high farm-density area of northwestern Italy. Farms were three intensive, one intensive with antibiotic-free finishing, and one organic. We tested nasal swabs from 195 animals and 26 environmental samples from three production phases: post-weaning, finishing and female breeders. Phenotypic tests, including MALDI-TOF MS, were used for the identification of Staphylococcus species; PCR and nucleotide sequencing confirmed resistance and bacterial species. MRCoNS were recovered in 64.5% of nasal swabs, in all farms and animal categories, while MRSA was detected only in one post-weaning sample in one farm. The lowest prevalence of MRCoNS was detected in pigs from the organic farm and in the finishing of the antibiotic-free farm. MRCoNS were mainly Staphylococcus sciuri, but we also recovered S. pasteuri, S. haemolyticus, S. cohnii, S. equorum and S. xylosus. Fifteen environmental samples were positive for MRCoNS, which were mainly S. sciuri; no MRSA was found in the farms' environment. The analyses of the mecA gene and the PBP2-a protein highlighted the same mecA fragment in strains of S. aureus, S. sciuri and S. haemolyticus. Our results show the emergence of MRCoNS carrying the mecA gene in swine farms. Moreover, they suggest that this gene might be horizontally transferred from MRCoNS to bacterial species more relevant for human health, such as S. aureus.

Cross-Sectional Serosurvey of Companion Animals Housed with SARS-CoV-2-Infected Owners, Italy.

We conducted a serologic survey among dogs and cats in Italy to detect antibodies against severe acute respiratory syndrome virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). We found that SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence was higher among cats (16.2%) than dogs (2.3%). In addition, seroprevalence was higher among animals living in close contact with SARS-CoV-2-positive owners.

Prognostic Indicators after Musculoskeletal Injuries in Standardbred Racehorses in Italy.

The objective of this study was to report recovery time, retirement rate, racing performance, and presence of compensation pattern after musculoskeletal injuries (MSIs) in Standardbred racehorses (STBRs). This is a retrospective single open-cohort study, enrolling 356 STBRs in training in a single racetrack. Musculoskeletal injury was defined as any training-related injury after which the horse did not train for at least 15 days. The first and second MSIs encountered during the horse's racing career were considered. Medical records, training logbooks, and racing data were reviewed to determine recovery time, retirement rate, racing performance, and compensation pattern after MSIs. Kaplan-Meier estimators considered the return to activity as primary endpoint. The hazard ratio (HR) for return to activity was determined using Cox proportional hazard models, after classifying horses based on the injury type. A total of 543 MSIs were considered. The 33.6% (95% confidence limits [CL]: 29.5, 37.8) of STBRs suffering from MSI had to be retired as consequence of that. The median recovery time after MSI was 119 days (95% CL: 47, 179). Horses with traumatic osteoarthritis had a greater likelihood of returning to athletic activity compared with horses with stress fractures (HR = 4.8, 95% CL: 3.5, 6.7) and tendon/ligament strains (HR = 4.1, 95% CL: 3.1, 5.4). Increased racing speed was recorded after injuries. The second MSI was more often localized to the contralateral limb compared with the first injury (odds ratio (OR) 6.35, 95% CL: 4.29, 8.51), diagonal (OR 4.59, 95% CL: 3.05, 6.27) and to the same limb (OR 3.17, 95% CL: 2.03, 4.47) than to the ipsilateral limb.

Antimicrobial use on Italian Pig Farms and its Relationship with Husbandry Practices.

The analysis of antimicrobial use (AMU) data in livestock allows for the identification of risk factors for AMU, thereby favoring the application of responsible AMU policies on-farm. Herewith, AMU in 36 finishing pig farms in northern Italy from 2015-2017 was expressed as defined daily doses for Italian pigs (DDDita) per population correction unit (DDDita/100kg). A retrospective analysis was then conducted to determine the effects of several husbandry practices on AMU. Overall, AMU ranged between 12 DDDita/100kg in 2015 and 8 DDDita/100kg in 2017, showing no significant trends, due to the large variability in AMU between farms. However, a 66% AMU reduction was observed in 19 farms during 2015-2017. Farm size, number of farm workers, air quality, average pig mortality, and presence of undocked pigs on the farm had no significant effects on AMU. Rather, welfare-friendly farms had 38% lower AMU levels (p < 0.05). In conclusion, animal welfare management seems to be relatively more important than farm structure and other managerial characteristics as drivers of AMU in finishing pig farms.

Attribution of Listeria monocytogenes human infections to food and animal sources in Northern Italy.

Listeriosis is a foodborne illness characterized by a relatively low morbidity, but a large disease burden due to the severity of clinical manifestations and the high case fatality rate. Increased listeriosis notifications have been observed in Europe since the 2000s. However, the reasons for this increase are largely unknown, with the sources of sporadic human listerioris often remaining elusive. Here we inferred the relative contributions of several putative sources of Listeria monocytogenes strains from listerioris patients in Northern Italy (Piedmont and Lombardy regions), using two established source attribution models (i.e. 'Dutch' and 'STRUCTURE') in comparative fashion. We compared the Multi-Locus Sequence Typing and Multi-Virulence-Locus Sequence Typing profiles of strains collected from beef, dairy, fish, game, mixed foods, mixed meat, pork, and poultry. Overall, 634 L. monocytogenes isolates were collected from 2005 to 2016. In total, 40 clonal complexes and 51 virulence types were identified, with 36% of the isolates belonging to possible epidemic clones (i.e. genetically related strains from unrelated outbreaks). Source attribution analysis showed that 50% of human listerioris cases (95% Confidence Interval 44-55%) could be attributed to dairy products, followed by poultry and pork (15% each), and mixed foods (15%). Since the contamination of dairy, poultry and pork products are closely linked to primary production, expanding actions currently limited to ready-to-eat products to the reservoir level may help reducing the risk of cross-contamination at the consumer level.

Elevated serum IgE, oral corticosteroid dependence and IL-17/22 expression in highly neutrophilic asthma.

Information on the clinical traits associated with bronchial neutrophilia in asthma is scant, preventing its recognition and adequate treatment. We aimed to assess the clinical, functional and biological features of neutrophilic asthma and identify possible predictors of bronchial neutrophilia.The inflammatory phenotype of 70 mild-to-severe asthma patients was studied cross-sectionally based on the eosinophilic/neutrophilic counts in their bronchial lamina propria. Patients were classified as neutrophilic or non-neutrophilic. Neutrophilic asthma patients (neutrophil count cut-off: 47.17 neutrophils·mm-2; range: 47.17-198.11 neutrophils·mm-2; median: 94.34 neutrophils·mm-2) were further classified as high (≥94.34 neutrophils·mm-2) or intermediate (47.17- <94.34 neutrophils·mm-2). The effect of smoking ≥10 pack-years was also assessed.Neutrophilic asthma patients (n=38; 36 mixed eosinophilic/neutrophilic) had greater disease severity, functional residual capacity, inhaled corticosteroid (ICS) dose and exacerbations, and lower forced vital capacity (FVC) % pred and forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1) reversibility than non-neutrophilic asthma patients (n=32; 28 eosinophilic and four paucigranulocytic). Neutrophilic asthma patients had similar eosinophil counts, increased bronchial CD8+, interleukin (IL)-17-F+ and IL-22+ cells, and decreased mast cells compared with non-neutrophilic asthma patients. FEV1 and FVC reversibility were independent predictors of bronchial neutrophilia in our cohort. High neutrophilic patients (n=21) had increased serum IgE levels, sensitivity to perennial allergens, exacerbation rate, oral corticosteroid dependence, and CD4+ and IL-17F+ cells in their bronchial mucosa. Excluding smokers revealed increased IL-17A+ and IL-22+ cells in highly neutrophilic patients.We provide new evidence linking the presence of high bronchial neutrophilia in asthma to an adaptive immune response associated with allergy (IgE) and IL-17/22 cytokine expression. High bronchial neutrophilia may discriminate a new endotype of asthma. Further research is warranted on the relationship between bronchoreversibility and bronchial neutrophilia.

Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato and spotted fever group rickettsiae in small rodents and attached ticks in the Northern Apennines, Italy.

Ticks and ear biopsies were collected from wild small rodents in 2011 and 2012 in the northern Apennines (Italy), up to 1650 m above sea level. Apodemus spp. (n = 83) and Myodes glareolus (n = 22) were infested by Ixodes ricinus (192 larvae and two nymphs), Dermacentor marginatus (179 larvae and 29 nymphs), and Ixodes trianguliceps (three larvae and two nymphs). We detected several Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.) genospecies (B. afzelii, B. burgdorferi sensu stricto, B. garinii, B. lusitaniae, B. valaisiana) in I. ricinus and skin biopsies. The most common genospecies found in I. ricinus was B. valaisiana, while it was B. lusitaniae in tissues. Spotted fever group (SFG) rickettsiae (Rickettsia monacensis, R. slovaca and R. raoultii) infected I. ricinus, D. marginatus and rodent tissues. Rickettsia slovaca was the Rickettsia species most frequently found in our samples. Coinfections by B. burgdorferi s.l. and SFG rickettsiae indicate an overlap of transmission cycles and potential risk for humans to be infected by multiple pathogens, resulting in more severe symptoms. The findings of B. lusitaniae and R. slovaca in bank voles, and of B. valaisiana in small rodents, open new questions about host-pathogen interactions. In addition, our results highlight the importance of small rodents as data sources for studying tick-borne pathogens.

Assessment of the Exposure of People to Questing Ticks Carrying Agents of Zoonoses in Aosta Valley, Italy.

We estimated the probability of exposure of people to questing ticks, infected with bacterial agents of the tick-borne zoonoses-in Aosta Valley, western Alps, Italy. We collected ticks by dragging, and from collectors' clothes in three hiking trails, which were divided into an internal path, with short vegetation, and an external part with taller grass. Dragging yielded 285 Ixodes ricinus nymphs and 31 adults, and two Dermacentor marginatus adults. Eleven I. ricinus nymphs and 9 adults were collected from collectors' clothes. Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. was identified by PCR in 12 out of 30 I. ricinus nymphs (prevalence = 40.0%, 95% confidence interval = 22.5, 57.5). The prevalence of infection by Rickettsia spp. was 13.3% (95% CI = 1.2, 25.5). The probability of encountering at least one questing I. ricinus infected by each bacterial agent (probability of exposure, E) in 100 m² was obtained by combining the number of collected nymphs, the prevalence of infection by each bacterial agent, the frequency of passage by visitors, and the probability of tick attachment to people. The mean number of nymphs collected by dragging was greatest in the internal part of hiking trails (mean = 7.9). Conversely, E was greater in the external part (up to 0.14 for B. burgdorferi s.l., and 0.07 for Rickettsia spp.), due to a greater probability of tick attachment to people in relatively tall vegetation.

Assessment of the Exposure of Turkey Farmers to Antimicrobial Resistance Associated with Working Practices.

The objective of the present study was the identification of farming practices in the production of turkeys for human consumption, and their ranking in terms of the occupational probability of exposure to antimicrobial resistant (AMR) bacteria, for farm workers. We gathered evidence and data from scientific literature, on risk factors for AMR in farmers, and on the prevalence of those hazards across farming phases. We administered semi-structured interviews to public and private veterinarians in Northern Italy, to obtain detailed information on turkey farming phases, and on working practices. Data were then integrated into a semi-quantitative Failure Modes and Effect Analysis (FMEA). Those working practices, which are characterized by direct contact with numerous animals, and which are carried out frequently, with rare use of personal protection devices resulted as associated with the greatest probability of exposure to AMR. For methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), these included vaccination and administration of any individual therapy, and removal and milling of litter, given the exposure of farmers to high dust level. Indeed, levels of occupational exposure to MRSA are enhanced by its transmission routes, which include direct contact with animal, as well as airborne transmission. Level of exposure to extended spectrum beta lactamase (ESBL) is more strictly associated with direct contact and the oral-fecal route. Consequently, exposure to ESBL resulted and associated with the routinely tipping over of poults turned on their back, and with the individual administration of therapies.

Analysis of the environmental and host-related factors affecting the distribution of the tick Dermacentor marginatus.

Understanding and responding to the ecological, social and economic conditions that facilitate disease emergence and transmission represents a substantial challenge for epidemiologists and health professionals. In this article we integrate knowledge about the human and the vector population, to provide a context from which to examine the underlying causal factors of D. marginatus-borne diseases emergence in the study area. Within this framework we analyse the biotic and abiotic factors that drive D. marginatus population dynamics and the role of its typical host for dispersal. These investigations suggest that D. marginatus is a tick species prone to spatially overlap its presence with human population presence. Then we consider the public health implications for the residents, when simply carrying out trivial outdoor activities may increase the risk to contact an infected tick.

Modeling the effects of variable feeding patterns of larval ticks on the transmission of Borrelia lusitaniae and Borrelia afzelii.

Spirochetes belonging to the Borrelia burgdoferi sensu lato (sl) group cause Lyme Borreliosis (LB), which is the most commonly reported vector-borne zoonosis in Europe. B. burgdorferi sl is maintained in nature in a complex cycle involving Ixodes ricinus ticks and several species of vertebrate hosts. The transmission dynamics of B. burgdorferi sl is complicated by the varying competence of animals for different genospecies of spirochetes that, in turn, vary in their capability of causing disease. In this study, a set of difference equations simplifying the complex interaction between vectors and their hosts (competent and not for Borrelia) is built to gain insights into conditions underlying the dominance of B. lusitaniae (transmitted by lizards to susceptible ticks) and the maintenance of B. afzelii (transmitted by wild rodents) observed in a study area in Tuscany, Italy. Findings, in agreement with field observations, highlight the existence of a threshold for the fraction of larvae feeding on rodents below which the persistence of B. afzelii is not possible. Furthermore, thresholds change as nonlinear functions of the expected number of nymph bites on mice, and the transmission and recovery probabilities. In conclusion, our model provided an insight into mechanisms underlying the relative frequency of different Borrelia genospecies, as observed in field studies.