Biodiversity into your hands - A call for a virtual global natural history 'metacollection'.

BACKGROUND: Many scientific disciplines rely on correct taxon delineations and identifications. So does a great part of the general public as well as decision makers. Researchers, students and enthusiastic amateurs often feel frustrated because information about species remains scattered, difficult to access, or difficult to decipher. Together, this affects almost anyone who wishes to identify species or verify identifications. Many remedies have been proposed, but we argue that the role of natural history collections remains insufficiently appreciated. We suggest using state-of-the-art mass imaging technology and to join forces to create a global natural history metacollection on the internet, providing access to the morphology of tens of millions of specimens and making them available for automated digital image analysis. DISCUSSION: Robotic high-resolution imaging technology and fast (high performance) computer-based image stitching make it now feasible to digitize entire collection drawers typically used for arthropod collections, or trays or containers used for other objects. Resolutions of 500 megapixels and much higher are already utilized to capture the contents of 40x50 cm collection drawers, providing amazing detail of specimens. Flanked by metadata entry, this helps to create access to tens of thousands of specimens in days. By setting priorities and combining the holdings of the most comprehensive collections for certain taxa, drawer digitizing offers the unique opportunity to create a global, virtual metacollection.The taxonomic and geographic coverage of such a collection could never be achieved by a single institution or individual. We argue that by joining forces, many new impulses will emerge for systematic biology, related fields and understanding of biodiversity in general.Digitizing drawers containing unidentified, little-curated specimens is a contribution towards the beginning of a new era of online curation. It also will help taxonomists and curators to discover and process the millions of "gems" of undescribed species hidden in museum accessions. SUMMARY: Our proposal suggests creating virtual, high-resolution image resources that will, for the first time in history, provide access for expert scientists as well as students and the general public to the enormous wealth of the world's natural history collections. We foresee that this will contribute to a better understanding, appreciation and increased use of biodiversity resources and the natural history collections serving this cause.

A DNA 'barcode blitz': rapid digitization and sequencing of a natural history collection.

DNA barcoding protocols require the linkage of each sequence record to a voucher specimen that has, whenever possible, been authoritatively identified. Natural history collections would seem an ideal resource for barcode library construction, but they have never seen large-scale analysis because of concerns linked to DNA degradation. The present study examines the strength of this barrier, carrying out a comprehensive analysis of moth and butterfly (Lepidoptera) species in the Australian National Insect Collection. Protocols were developed that enabled tissue samples, specimen data, and images to be assembled rapidly. Using these methods, a five-person team processed 41,650 specimens representing 12,699 species in 14 weeks. Subsequent molecular analysis took about six months, reflecting the need for multiple rounds of PCR as sequence recovery was impacted by age, body size, and collection protocols. Despite these variables and the fact that specimens averaged 30.4 years old, barcode records were obtained from 86% of the species. In fact, one or more barcode compliant sequences (>487 bp) were recovered from virtually all species represented by five or more individuals, even when the youngest was 50 years old. By assembling specimen images, distributional data, and DNA barcode sequences on a web-accessible informatics platform, this study has greatly advanced accessibility to information on thousands of species. Moreover, much of the specimen data became publically accessible within days of its acquisition, while most sequence results saw release within three months. As such, this study reveals the speed with which DNA barcode workflows can mobilize biodiversity data, often providing the first web-accessible information for a species. These results further suggest that existing collections can enable the rapid development of a comprehensive DNA barcode library for the most diverse compartment of terrestrial biodiversity - insects.

Morphometric measurements of dragonfly wings: the accuracy of pinned, scanned and detached measurement methods.

Large-scale digitization of museum specimens, particularly of insect collections, is becoming commonplace. Imaging increases the accessibility of collections and decreases the need to handle individual, often fragile, specimens. Another potential advantage of digitization is to make it easier to conduct morphometric analyses, but the accuracy of such methods needs to be tested. Here we compare morphometric measurements of scanned images of dragonfly wings to those obtained using other, more traditional, methods. We assume that the destructive method of removing and slide-mounting wings provides the most accurate method of measurement because it eliminates error due to wing curvature. We show that, for dragonfly wings, hand measurements of pinned specimens and digital measurements of scanned images are equally accurate relative to slide-mounted hand measurements. Since destructive slide-mounting is unsuitable for museum collections, and there is a risk of damage when hand measuring fragile pinned specimens, we suggest that the use of scanned images may also be an appropriate method to collect morphometric data from other collected insect species.

Whole-drawer imaging for digital management and curation of a large entomological collection.

Whole-drawer imaging is shown to be an effective tool for rapid digitisation of large insect collections. On-line, Whole-drawer images facilitate more effective collection management, virtual curation, and public engagement. The Whole-drawer imaging experience at the Australian National Insect Collection is discussed, with an explanation of workflow and examples of benefits.

Enzyme activity in the aestivating green-striped burrowing frog (Cyclorana alboguttata).

Green-striped burrowing frogs (Cyclorana alboguttata) can depress their resting metabolism by more than 80% during aestivation. Previous studies have shown that this species is able to withstand long periods of immobilisation during aestivation while apparently maintaining whole muscle mass and contractile performance. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of prolonged aestivation on the levels of metabolic enzymes (CCO, LDH and CS) in functionally distinct skeletal muscles (cruralis, gastrocnemius, sartorius, iliofibularis and rectus abdominus) and liver of C. alboguttata. CS activity was significantly reduced in all tissues except for the cruralis, gastrocnemius and the liver. LDH activity was significantly reduced in the sartorius and rectus abdominus, but remained at control (active) levels in the other tissues. CCO activity was significantly reduced in the gastrocnemius and rectus abdominus, and unchanged in the remaining tissues. Muscle protein was significantly reduced in the sartorius and iliofibularis during aestivation, and unchanged in the remaining muscles. The results suggest that the energy pathways involved in the production and consumption of ATP are remodelled during prolonged aestivation but selective. Remodelling and subsequent down-regulation of metabolic activity seem to target the smaller non-jumping muscles, while the jumping muscles retain enzyme activities at control levels during aestivation. These results suggest a mechanism by which aestivating C. alboguttata are able to maintain metabolic depression while ensuring that the functional capacity of critical muscles is not compromised upon emergence from aestivation.

Skeletal muscle atrophy occurs slowly and selectively during prolonged aestivation in Cyclorana alboguttata (Gunther 1867).

We investigated the effect of prolonged immobilisation of six and nine months duration on the morphology and antioxidant biochemistry of skeletal muscles in the amphibian aestivator Cyclorana alboguttata. We hypothesised that, in the event of atrophy occurring during aestivation, larger jumping muscles were more likely to be preserved over smaller non-jumping muscles. Whole muscle mass (g), muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) (microm(2)), water content (%) and myofibre number (per mm(2)) remained unchanged in the cruralis muscle after six to nine months of aestivation; however, myofibre area (microm(2)) was significantly reduced. Whole muscle mass, water content, myofibre number and myofibre CSA remained unchanged in the gastrocnemius muscle after six to nine months of aestivation. However, iliofibularis dry muscle mass, whole muscle CSA and myofibre CSA was significantly reduced during aestivation. Similarly, sartorius dry muscle mass, water content and whole muscle CSA was significantly reduced during aestivation. Endogenous antioxidants were maintained at control levels throughout aestivation in all four muscles. The results suggest changes to muscle morphology during aestivation may occur when lipid reserves have been depleted and protein becomes the primary fuel substrate for preserving basal metabolic processes. Muscle atrophy as a result of this protein catabolism may be correlated with locomotor function, with smaller non-jumping muscles preferentially used as a protein source during fasting over larger jumping muscles. Higher levels of endogenous antioxidants in the jumping muscles may confer a protective advantage against oxidative damage during aestivation; however, it is not clear whether they play a role during aestivation or upon resumption of normal metabolic activity.