Unraveling the benefits of experiencing errors during learning: Definition, modulating factors, and explanatory theories.

Making errors is part of human nature, and it is thus important to know how to get the best out of them. Experimental evidence has shown that generating errors can enhance learning when these are followed by corrective feedback. However, little is known about the specific conditions and mechanisms that underlie this benefit of experiencing errors. This review aimed to shed some light on this type of learning. First, we highlight certain conditions that may influence errorful learning. These include the timing of corrective feedback, error types, learner awareness about errorful learning, motivation to learn the study material, differences in special populations (e.g., amnesia), incidental versus intentional encoding, the importance of selecting an appropriate final test procedure, whether the study material needs to be semantically related, and if it is necessary to recover the previous errors at the time of retrieval. We then consider four explanatory theories of errorful learning: (1) The Mediator Effectiveness hypothesis, (2) the Search Set theory, (3) the Recursive Reminding theory, and (4) the Error Prediction theory. According to these theories, two factors are decisive for observing the benefits of errorful learning: the level of a pre-existing semantic relationship between the study materials, and whether the error must be explicitly recovered on the final test. To conclude, we discuss some limitations of using a pretesting procedure to study errorful learning and we reflect on further research. This review brings us closer to understanding why experiencing errors confers a memory advantage.

Neural Correlates of Long-Term Memory Enhancement Following Retrieval Practice.

Retrieval practice, relative to further study, leads to long-term memory enhancement known as the "testing effect." The neurobiological correlates of the testing effect at retrieval, when the learning benefits of testing are expressed, have not been fully characterized. Participants learned Swahili-English word-pairs and were assigned randomly to either the Study-Group or the Test-Group. After a week delay, all participants completed a cued-recall test while undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). The Test-Group had superior memory for the word-pairs compared to the Study-Group. While both groups exhibited largely overlapping activations for remembered word-pairs, following an interaction analysis the Test-Group exhibited differential performance-related effects in the left putamen and left inferior parietal cortex near the supramarginal gyrus. The same analysis showed the Study-Group exhibited greater activations in the dorsal MPFC/pre-SMA and bilateral frontal operculum for remembered vs. forgotten word-pairs, whereas the Test-Group showed the opposite pattern of activation in the same regions. Thus, retrieval practice during training establishes a unique striatal-supramarginal network at retrieval that promotes enhanced memory performance. In contrast, study alone yields poorer memory but greater activations in frontal regions.

Backtracking during navigation is correlated with enhanced anterior cingulate activity and suppression of alpha oscillations and the 'default-mode' network.

Successful navigation can require realizing the current path choice was a mistake and the best strategy is to retreat along the recent path: 'back-track'. Despite the wealth of studies on the neural correlates of navigation little is known about backtracking. To explore the neural underpinnings of backtracking we tested humans during functional magnetic resonance imaging on their ability to navigate to a set of goal locations in a virtual desert island riven by lava which constrained the paths that could be taken. We found that on a subset of trials, participants spontaneously chose to backtrack and that the majority of these choices were optimal. During backtracking, activity increased in frontal regions and the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, while activity was suppressed in regions associated with the core default-mode network. Using the same task, magnetoencephalography and a separate group of participants, we found that power in the alpha band was significantly decreased immediately prior to such backtracking events. These results highlight the importance for navigation of brain networks previously identified in processing internally-generated errors and that such error-detection responses may involve shifting the brain from default-mode states to aid successful spatial orientation.

Prefrontal Dynamics Associated with Efficient Detours and Shortcuts: A Combined Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Magnetoencenphalography Study.

Central to the concept of the "cognitive map" is that it confers behavioral flexibility, allowing animals to take efficient detours, exploit shortcuts, and avoid alluring, but unhelpful, paths. The neural underpinnings of such naturalistic and flexible behavior remain unclear. In two neuroimaging experiments, we tested human participants on their ability to navigate to a set of goal locations in a virtual desert island riven by lava, which occasionally spread to block selected paths (necessitating detours) or receded to open new paths (affording real shortcuts or false shortcuts to be avoided). Detours activated a network of frontal regions compared with shortcuts. Activity in the right dorsolateral PFC specifically increased when participants encountered tempting false shortcuts that led along suboptimal paths that needed to be differentiated from real shortcuts. We also report modulation in event-related fields and theta power in these situations, providing insight to the temporal evolution of response to encountering detours and shortcuts. These results help inform current models as to how the brain supports navigation and planning in dynamic environments.

Mere exposure effect can be elicited in transient global amnesia.

Transient global amnesia (TGA) is one of the most severe forms of anterograde amnesia seen in clinical practice, yet patients may show evidence of spared learning during the amnesic episode. The scope of spared learning in such a severe form of amnesia remains uncertain, and it is also unclear whether findings from single-case studies hold up in group studies of TGA patients. In this group study, we found evidence that extended the domain of spared learning in TGA to include the mere exposure effect, whereby enhanced preference is primed by prior exposure to stimuli. We demonstrate this effect during an acute episode in a group of TGA patients, where they showed enhanced preference for previously exposed faces, despite markedly impaired performance on standard anterograde memory tests.

Memoria y metamemoria durante la amnesia global transitoria: estudio comparativo sobre su evolución a largo plazo / Memory and metamemory during transient global amnesia: a comparative study about long-term follow up

Introducción. Los criterios diagnósticos de la amnesia global transitoria (AGT) establecen que el funcionamiento de la memoria se debe restablecer, como máximo, en 24 horas. Sin embargo, existen datos contradictorios sobre si aparecen secuelas a largo plazo. Además, no está claro qué herramienta es la más adecuada para controlar la evolución de estos pacientes. Objetivos. Evaluar la afectación de la memoria episódica de los pacientes con AGT durante el episodio amnésico y a los 7, 30 y 90 días después, con la tarea de recuerdo libre y con el test minimental, y estudiar la metamemoria de estos pacientes. Sujetos y métodos. Se han evaluado 17 pacientes con AGT y 17 voluntarios igualados en edad, sexo y nivel educativo con el grupo de pacientes. Se ha realizado un estudio longitudinal (cuatro evaluaciones) factorial (con el grupo de pacientes y el grupo control). Resultados. Durante la AGT, los pacientes muestran afectación de la memoria episódica tanto utilizando la tarea de recuerdo libre como el test minimental. Sin embargo, sólo la prueba de recuerdo libre detecta una mejoría a lo largo del tiempo y una puntuación alterada tres meses después. Por otra parte, se ha evidenciado que la metamemoria de estos pacientes es poco precisa. Conclusiones. Tanto la tarea de recuerdo libre como el test minimental detectan alteración durante la AGT, pero sólo la primera es una prueba sensible a la alteración de la memoria a largo plazo asociada a este tipo de amnesia (AU)

Introduction. Diagnostic criteria of transient global amnesia (TGA) establishes that memory functioning has to be recovered in 24 hours. However, there are contradictory data about the existence of long-term sequelae. Furthermore, there is no consensus about which is the most suitable tool in order to use in the assessment of the follow up of these patients. Aims. To assess episodic memory of TGA patients during amnesic episode and 7, 30 and 90 days after with free recall and Mini-Mental tasks. Moreover, it has been measured patient’s metamemory. Subjects and methods. 17 TGA patients and 17 healthy volunteers, matched by age, sex, and educational level were assessed. A longitudinal (four assessments) and factorial (patients and control group) study was carried out. Results. During TGA, free recall and Mini-Mental tasks were significantly affected. However, only free recall task showedimprovement along time and impairment after three months. It has been also detected that metamemory of TGA patients is imprecise. Conclusions. Comparing with control group, both free recall and Mini-Mental tasks have significant lower levels during TGA, but only the first one is sensitive enough to show long-term disturbance associated with this amnesia (AU)

[Memory and metamemory during transient global amnesia: a comparative study about long-term follow up]. / Memoria y metamemoria durante la amnesia global transitoria: estudio comparativo sobre su evolución a largo plazo.

INTRODUCTION: Diagnostic criteria of transient global amnesia (TGA) establishes that memory functioning has to be recovered in 24 hours. However, there are contradictory data about the existence of long-term sequelae. Furthermore, there is no consensus about which is the most suitable tool in order to use in the assessment of the follow up of these patients. AIMS: To assess episodic memory of TGA patients during amnesic episode and 7, 30 and 90 days after with free recall and Mini-Mental tasks. Moreover, it has been measured patient's metamemory. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: 17 TGA patients and 17 healthy volunteers, matched by age, sex, and educational level were assessed. A longitudinal (four assessments) and factorial (patients and control group) study was carried out. RESULTS: During TGA, free recall and Mini-Mental tasks were significantly affected. However, only free recall task showed improvement along time and impairment after three months. It has been also detected that metamemory of TGA patients is imprecise. CONCLUSIONS: Comparing with control group, both free recall and Mini-Mental tasks have significant lower levels during TGA, but only the first one is sensitive enough to show long-term disturbance associated with this amnesia.