Toward a coordinated understanding of hydro-biogeochemical root functions in tropical forests for application in vegetation models.

Tropical forest root characteristics and resource acquisition strategies are underrepresented in vegetation and global models, hampering the prediction of forest-climate feedbacks for these carbon-rich ecosystems. Lowland tropical forests often have globally unique combinations of high taxonomic and functional biodiversity, rainfall seasonality, and strongly weathered infertile soils, giving rise to distinct patterns in root traits and functions compared with higher latitude ecosystems. We provide a roadmap for integrating recent advances in our understanding of tropical forest belowground function into vegetation models, focusing on water and nutrient acquisition. We offer comparisons of recent advances in empirical and model understanding of root characteristics that represent important functional processes in tropical forests. We focus on: (1) fine-root strategies for soil resource exploration, (2) coupling and trade-offs in fine-root water vs nutrient acquisition, and (3) aboveground-belowground linkages in plant resource acquisition and use. We suggest avenues for representing these extremely diverse plant communities in computationally manageable and ecologically meaningful groups in models for linked aboveground-belowground hydro-nutrient functions. Tropical forests are undergoing warming, shifting rainfall regimes, and exacerbation of soil nutrient scarcity caused by elevated atmospheric CO2. The accurate model representation of tropical forest functions is crucial for understanding the interactions of this biome with the climate.

Las características de las raíces de los bosques tropicales y las estrategias de adquisición de recursos están subrepresentadas en modelos de vegetación, lo que dificulta la predicción del efecto de cambio de clima para estos ecosistemas ricos en carbono. Los bosques tropicales a menudo tienen combinaciones únicas a nivel mundial de alta biodiversidad taxonómica y funcional, estacionalidad de precipitación, y suelos infértiles, dando lugar a patrones distintos en los rasgos y funciones de las raíces en comparación con los ecosistemas de latitudes más altas. Integramos los avances recientes en nuestra comprensión de la función subterránea de los bosques tropicales en modelos de vegetación, centrándonos en la adquisición de agua y nutrientes. Ofrecemos comparaciones de avances recientes en la comprensión empírica y de modelos de las características de las raíces que representan procesos funcionales importantes en los bosques tropicales. Nos centramos en: (1) estrategias de raíces finas para adquisición de recursos del suelo, (2) acoplamiento y compensaciones entre adquisición del agua y de nutrientes, y (3) vínculos entre funciones sobre tierra y debajo del superficie en bosques tropicales. Sugerimos vías para representar estas comunidades de plantas extremadamente diversas en grupos computacionalmente manejables y ecológicamente significativos en modelos. Los bosques tropicales se están calentando, tienen cambios en los regímenes de lluvias, y tienen una exacerbación de la escasez de nutrientes del suelo causada por el elevado CO2 atmosférico. La representación precisa de las funciones de los bosques tropicales en modelos es crucial para comprender las interacciones de este bioma con el clima.

Hydraulic variability of tropical forests is largely independent of water availability.

Tropical rainforest woody plants have been thought to have uniformly low resistance to hydraulic failure and to function near the edge of their hydraulic safety margin (HSM), making these ecosystems vulnerable to drought; however, this may not be the case. Using data collected at 30 tropical forest sites for three key traits associated with drought tolerance, we show that site-level hydraulic diversity of leaf turgor loss point, resistance to embolism (P50 ), and HSMs is high across tropical forests and largely independent of water availability. Species with high HSMs (>1 MPa) and low P50 values (< -2 MPa) are common across the wet and dry tropics. This high site-level hydraulic diversity, largely decoupled from water stress, could influence which species are favoured and become dominant under a drying climate. High hydraulic diversity could also make these ecosystems more resilient to variable rainfall regimes.

Leaf habit affects the distribution of drought sensitivity but not water transport efficiency in the tropics.

Considering the global intensification of aridity in tropical biomes due to climate change, we need to understand what shapes the distribution of drought sensitivity in tropical plants. We conducted a pantropical data synthesis representing 1117 species to test whether xylem-specific hydraulic conductivity (KS ), water potential at leaf turgor loss (ΨTLP ) and water potential at 50% loss of KS (ΨP50 ) varied along climate gradients. The ΨTLP and ΨP50 increased with climatic moisture only for evergreen species, but KS did not. Species with high ΨTLP and ΨP50 values were associated with both dry and wet environments. However, drought-deciduous species showed high ΨTLP and ΨP50 values regardless of water availability, whereas evergreen species only in wet environments. All three traits showed a weak phylogenetic signal and a short half-life. These results suggest strong environmental controls on trait variance, which in turn is modulated by leaf habit along climatic moisture gradients in the tropics.

Climate and hydraulic traits interact to set thresholds for liana viability.

Lianas, or woody vines, and trees dominate the canopy of tropical forests and comprise the majority of tropical aboveground carbon storage. These growth forms respond differently to contemporary variation in climate and resource availability, but their responses to future climate change are poorly understood because there are very few predictive ecosystem models representing lianas. We compile a database of liana functional traits (846 species) and use it to parameterize a mechanistic model of liana-tree competition. The substantial difference between liana and tree hydraulic conductivity represents a critical source of inter-growth form variation. Here, we show that lianas are many times more sensitive to drying atmospheric conditions than trees as a result of this trait difference. Further, we use our competition model and projections of tropical hydroclimate based on Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5 to show that lianas are more susceptible to reaching a hydraulic threshold for viability by 2100.

Hurricanes increase tropical forest vulnerability to drought.

Rapid changes in climate and disturbance regimes, including droughts and hurricanes, are likely to influence tropical forests, but our understanding of the compound effects of disturbances on forest ecosystems is extremely limited. Filling this knowledge gap is necessary to elucidate the future of these ecosystems under a changing climate. We examined the relationship between hurricane response (damage, mortality, and resilience) and four hydraulic traits of 13 dominant woody species in a wet tropical forest subject to periodic hurricanes. Species with high resistance to embolisms (low P50 values) and higher safety margins ( SMP50 ) were more resistant to immediate hurricane mortality and breakage, whereas species with higher hurricane resilience (rapid post-hurricane growth) had high capacitance and P50 values and low SMP50 . During 26 yr of post-hurricane recovery, we found a decrease in community-weighted mean values for traits associated with greater drought resistance (leaf turgor loss point, P50 , SMP50 ) and an increase in capacitance, which has been linked with lower drought resistance. Hurricane damage favors slow-growing, drought-tolerant species, whereas post-hurricane high resource conditions favor acquisitive, fast-growing but drought-vulnerable species, increasing forest productivity at the expense of drought tolerance and leading to higher overall forest vulnerability to drought.

Unraveling the relative role of light and water competition between lianas and trees in tropical forests: A vegetation model analysis.

Despite their low contribution to forest carbon stocks, lianas (woody vines) play an important role in the carbon dynamics of tropical forests. As structural parasites, they hinder tree survival, growth and fecundity; hence, they negatively impact net ecosystem productivity and long-term carbon sequestration.Competition (for water and light) drives various forest processes and depends on the local abundance of resources over time. However, evaluating the relative role of resource availability on the interactions between lianas and trees from empirical observations is particularly challenging. Previous approaches have used labour-intensive and ecosystem-scale manipulation experiments, which are infeasible in most situations.We propose to circumvent this challenge by evaluating the uncertainty of water and light capture processes of a process-based vegetation model (ED2) including the liana growth form. We further developed the liana plant functional type in ED2 to mechanistically simulate water uptake and transport from roots to leaves, and start the model from prescribed initial conditions. We then used the PEcAn bioinformatics platform to constrain liana parameters and run uncertainty analyses.Baseline runs successfully reproduced ecosystem gas exchange fluxes (gross primary productivity and latent heat) and forest structural features (leaf area index, aboveground biomass) in two sites (Barro Colorado Island, Panama and Paracou, French Guiana) characterized by different rainfall regimes and levels of liana abundance.Model uncertainty analyses revealed that water limitation was the factor driving the competition between trees and lianas at the drier site (BCI), and during the relatively short dry season of the wetter site (Paracou). In young patches, light competition dominated in Paracou but alternated with water competition between the wet and the dry season on BCI according to the model simulations.The modelling workflow also identified key liana traits (photosynthetic quantum efficiency, stomatal regulation parameters, allometric relationships) and processes (water use, respiration, climbing) driving the model uncertainty. They should be considered as priorities for future data acquisition and model development to improve predictions of the carbon dynamics of liana-infested forests. Synthesis. Competition for water plays a larger role in the interaction between lianas and trees than previously hypothesized, as demonstrated by simulations from a process-based vegetation model.

A catastrophic tropical drought kills hydraulically vulnerable tree species.

Drought-related tree mortality is now a widespread phenomenon predicted to increase in magnitude with climate change. However, the patterns of which species and trees are most vulnerable to drought, and the underlying mechanisms have remained elusive, in part due to the lack of relevant data and difficulty of predicting the location of catastrophic drought years in advance. We used long-term demographic records and extensive databases of functional traits and distribution patterns to understand the responses of 20-53 species to an extreme drought in a seasonally dry tropical forest in Costa Rica, which occurred during the 2015 El Niño Southern Oscillation event. Overall, species-specific mortality rates during the drought ranged from 0% to 34%, and varied little as a function of tree size. By contrast, hydraulic safety margins correlated well with probability of mortality among species, while morphological or leaf economics spectrum traits did not. This firmly suggests hydraulic traits as targets for future research.

Allometric scaling laws linking biomass and rooting depth vary across ontogeny and functional groups in tropical dry forest lianas and trees.

There are two theories about how allocation of metabolic products occurs. The allometric biomass partitioning theory (APT) suggests that all plants follow common allometric scaling rules. The optimal partitioning theory (OPT) predicts that plants allocate more biomass to the organ capturing the most limiting resource. Whole-plant harvests of mature and juvenile tropical deciduous trees, evergreen trees, and lianas and model simulations were used to address the following knowledge gaps: (1) Do mature lianas comply with the APT scaling laws or do they invest less biomass in stems compared to trees? (2) Do juveniles follow the same allocation patterns as mature individuals? (3) Is either leaf phenology or life form a predictor of rooting depth? It was found that: (1) mature lianas followed the same allometric scaling laws as trees; (2) juveniles and mature individuals do not follow the same allocation patterns; and (3) mature lianas had shallowest coarse roots and evergreen trees had the deepest. It was demonstrated that: (1) mature lianas invested proportionally similar biomass to stems as trees and not less, as expected; (2) lianas were not deeper-rooted than trees as had been previously proposed; and (3) evergreen trees had the deepest roots, which is necessary to maintain canopy during simulated dry seasons.

Effects of dry-season irrigation on leaf physiology and biomass allocation in tropical lianas and trees.

Lianas are more abundant in seasonal forests than in wetter forests and are thought to perform better than trees when light is abundant and water is limited. We tested the hypothesis that lianas perform better than trees during seasonal drought using a common garden experiment with 12 taxonomically diverse species (six liana and six tree species) in 12 replicated plots. We irrigated six of the plots during the dry season for four years, while the remaining six control plots received only ambient rainfall. In year 5, we measured stem diameters for all individuals and harvested above- and belowground biomass for a subset of individuals to quantify absolute growth and biomass allocation to roots, stems, and leaves, as well as total root length and maximum rooting depth. We also measured rate of photosynthesis, intrinsic water use efficiency (iWUE), pre-dawn and midday water potential, and a set of functional and hydraulic traits. During the peak of the dry season, lianas in control plots had 54% higher predawn leaf water potentials (ΨPD ), and 45% higher photosynthetic rates than trees in control plots. By contrast, during the peak of the wet season, these physiological differences between lianas and trees become less pronounced and, in some cases, even disappeared. Trees had higher specific leaf area (SLA) than lianas; however, no other functional trait differed between growth forms. Trees responded to the irrigation treatment with 15% larger diameters and 119% greater biomass than trees in control plots. Liana growth, however, did not respond to irrigation; liana diameter and biomass were similar in control and irrigation plots, suggesting that lianas were far less limited by soil moisture than were trees. Contrary to previous hypotheses, lianas did not have deeper roots than trees; however, lianas had longer roots per stem diameter than did trees. Our results support the hypothesis that lianas perform better and experience less physiological stress than trees during seasonal drought, suggesting clear differences between growth forms in response to altered rainfall regimes. Ultimately, better dry-season performance may explain why liana abundance peaks in seasonal forests compared to trees, which peak in abundance in less seasonal, wetter forests.

Sensory neuro-immune interactions differ between irritable bowel syndrome subtypes.

OBJECTIVE: The gut is a major site of contact between immune and sensory systems and evidence suggests that patients with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) have immune dysfunction. Here we show how this dysfunction differs between major IBS subgroups and how immunocytes communicate with sensory nerves. DESIGN: Peripheral blood mononuclear cell supernatants from 20 diarrhoea predominant IBS (D-IBS) patients, 15 constipation predominant IBS (C-IBS) patients and 36 healthy subjects were applied to mouse colonic sensory nerves and effects on mechanosensitivity assessed. Cytokine/chemokine concentration in the supernatants was assessed by proteomic analysis and correlated with abdominal symptoms, and expression of cytokine receptors evaluated in colonic dorsal root ganglia neurons. We then determined the effects of specific cytokines on colonic afferents. RESULTS: D-IBS supernatants caused mechanical hypersensitivity of mouse colonic afferent endings, which was reduced by infliximab. C-IBS supernatants did not, but occasionally elevated basal discharge. Supernatants of healthy subjects inhibited afferent mechanosensitivity via an opioidergic mechanism. Several cytokines were elevated in IBS supernatants, and levels correlated with pain frequency and intensity in patients. Visceral afferents expressed receptors for four cytokines: IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-10 and TNF-α. TNF-α most effectively caused mechanical hypersensitivity which was blocked by a transient receptor potential channel TRPA1 antagonist. IL-1ß elevated basal firing, and this was lost after tetrodotoxin blockade of sodium channels. CONCLUSIONS: Distinct patterns of immune dysfunction and interaction with sensory pathways occur in different patient groups and through different intracellular pathways. Our results indicate IBS patient subgroups would benefit from selective targeting of the immune system.

Role of TRPV1 in high-threshold rat colonic splanchnic afferents is revealed by inflammation.

The vanilloid-1 receptor TRPV1 is known to play a role in extrinsic gastrointestinal afferent function. We investigated the role of TRPV1 in mechanosensitivity in afferents from normal and inflamed tissue. Colonic mechanosensitivity was determined in an in vitro rat colon preparation by recording from attached splanchnic nerves. Recordings were made from serosal/mesenteric afferents responding only at high thresholds to graded mechanical stimulation with von Frey probes. Colonic inflammation was induced by adding 5% dextran sulphate sodium (DSS) to the drinking water for 5 days, and was confirmed by histopathology. The selective TRPV1 antagonist, SB-750364 (10(-8) to 10(-6)M), was tested on mechanosensory stimulus response functions of afferents from normal and inflamed preparations (N=7 each). Mechanosensory responses had thresholds of 1-2g, and maximal responses were observed at 12 g. The stimulus response function was not affected by DSS-induced colitis. SB-750364 had no effect on stimulus response functions in normal preparations, but reduced (up to 60%) in a concentration-dependent manner those in inflammation (2-way ANOVA, p<0.05). Moreover, in inflamed tissue, spontaneous afferent activity showed a dose-dependent trend toward reduction with SB-750364. We conclude that mechanosensitivity of high-threshold serosal colonic splanchnic afferents to graded stimuli is unaffected during DSS colitis. However, there is a positive influence of TRPV1 in mechanosensitivity in inflammation, suggesting up-regulation of excitatory TRPV1-mediated mechanisms.

Metabotropic glutamate receptors inhibit mechanosensitivity in vagal sensory neurons.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Inhibitory G-protein-coupled receptors have demonstrated potential in treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) through actions on vagal afferent signaling. Metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR) belong to this receptor family and have great pharmacologic and molecular diversity, with 8 subtypes. We investigated mGluR in the vagal system of humans and other species. METHODS: Expression of mGluR1-8 in human, dog, ferret, and rodent nodose ganglia was investigated by reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. mGluR1-8 immunohistochemistry was performed in combination with retrograde tracing of vagal afferents from ferret proximal stomach to nodose ganglia. Transport of mGluR peripherally was investigated by vagal ligation, followed by immunohistochemistry. Glutamate receptor pharmacology of ferret and rodent gastroesophageal vagal afferents was investigated by testing single fiber responses to graded mechanical stimuli during drug application to their peripheral endings. RESULTS: Messenger RNA for several mGluR was detected in the nodose ganglia of all species. Retrograde tracing indicated that ferret gastric vagal afferents express mGluR protein. Accumulation of immunoreactivity proximal to a ligature showed that mGluR were transported peripherally in the vagus nerves. Glutamate (1-30 mumol/L with kynurenate 0.1 mmol/L) concentration dependently inhibited vagal afferent mechanosensitivity. This was mimicked by selective group II and III mGluR agonists but not by a group I agonist. Conversely, a group III mGluR antagonist increased mechanosensitivity to intense stimuli. CONCLUSIONS: Both exogenous and endogenous glutamate inhibits mechanosensitivity of vagal afferents. Group II (mGluR2 and 3) and group III mGluR (mGluR4, 6, 7, 8) are novel targets for inhibition of vagal signaling with therapeutic potential in, for example, GERD.