Executive Summary From the National Strength and Conditioning Association's Second Blue Ribbon Panel on Military Physical Readiness: Military Physical Performance Testing.

The National Strength and Conditioning Association's tactical strength and conditioning program sponsored the second Blue Ribbon Panel on military physical readiness: military physical performance testing, April 18-19, 2013, Norfolk, VA. This meeting brought together a total of 20 subject matter experts (SMEs) from the U.S. Air Force, Army, Marine Corps, Navy, and academia representing practitioners, operators, researchers, and policy advisors to discuss the current state of physical performance testing across the Armed Services. The SME panel initially rated 9 common military tasks (jumping over obstacles, moving with agility, carrying heavy loads, dragging heavy loads, running long distances, moving quickly over short distances, climbing over obstacles, lifting heavy objects, loading equipment) by the degree to which health-related fitness components (e.g., aerobic fitness, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, and body composition) and skill-related fitness components (e.g., muscular power, agility, balance, coordination, speed, and reaction time) were required to accomplish these tasks. A scale from 1 to 10 (10 being highest) was used. Muscular strength, power, and endurance received the highest rating scores. Panel consensus concluded that (a) selected fitness components (particularly for skill-related fitness components) are currently not being assessed by the military; (b) field-expedient options to measure both health-based and skill-based fitness components are currently available; and

Similar hormonal stress and tissue damage in response to National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I football games played in two consecutive seasons.

The recovery process from a college football game has been studied, yet the stability of such findings year to year in the same players remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to examine the same players' biochemical recovery process in 2 consecutive seasons to a National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I football game. Ten starting players volunteered to participate in the study in each of the 2 seasons. Players performed a periodized heavy resistance training program over the entire year for each season. Fasted resting blood samples were obtained at similar times the Friday before the game (T1), 18-20 hours after the game (T2), and 42-44 hours after the game (T3). In both seasons, serum creatine kinase (CK) concentrations increased significantly from T1 to T2, and returned to T1 values at T3. When we compared seasons, CK values did not differ at any time point. Myoglobin demonstrated similar patterns and results. Testosterone and cortisol values were similar at all time points and did not differ by season as no significant differences were observed for the resting hormonal concentrations. The results of this study indicate that yearly programs should maintain a periodized progressive program, which seeks to increase physical potential of players while providing a protective effect on skeletal muscle and stabilization of hormonal status in response to both game and season stressors.

The effects of resistance training prioritization in NCAA Division I Football summer training.

Resistance training (RT) is an integral part of National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I Football performance programs. In the sport of football, there are several components that a strength and conditioning coach must be aware of. These include body mass, size, strength, power, speed, conditioning, and injury prevention, among others. The purpose of this study was to investigate if the RT component of a performance program could be prioritized for specific results using a nonlinear training model, grouping athletes by eligibility year. The NCAA Division I football student athletes were placed into 3 separate groups based on the playing year. All subjects participated in a 10-week, 4 days·week-1 off-season summer resistance training program. The training of group 1 (n = 20, age: 18.95 ± 0.76 years, height: 186.63 ± 7.21 cm, body mass: 97.66 ± 18.17 kg, playing year: 1.05 ± 0.22 years) prioritized hypertrophy-based RT to gain body mass. The training of group 2 (n = 20, age: 20.05 ± 1.05 years, height: 189.42 ± 5.49 cm, body mass: 106.99 ± 13.53 kg, and playing year: 2.35 ± 0.75 years) prioritized strength-based RT to gain strength. The training of group 3 (n = 20, age: 21.05 ± 1.10 years, height: 186.56 ± 6.73 cm, body mass: 109.8 ± 19.96 kg, playing year: 4.4 ± 0.50 years) prioritized power-based RT to gain power. Performance tests were evaluated during the first weeks of March (Spring) and August (Fall). The test measures included body mass (kilograms), 1-repetition maximum (1RM) bench press (kilograms), 1RM back squat (kilograms), 1RM power clean (kilograms), and countermovement vertical jump (CMVJ) height (centimeters). The primary findings of this investigation were as follows: group 1 saw significant increases in bench press maximum, back squat maximum, and power clean maximum (p ≤ 0.05). Group 2 saw significant increases in bench press maximum, back squat maximum, and power clean maximum (p ≤ 0.05). Group 3 saw a significant increase in power clean maximum (p ≤ 0.05). Group 1's significant increases were expected because of their low training age relatively shorter training history when compared with Groups 2 and 3. Group 1 did not see significant increases in body mass, with 7 out of 20 subjects being nonresponders. Group 2 and 3's significant increases were expected. Unexpectedly, no group saw significant increases in maximum CMVJ height. With so many factors that go into a football performance program contributing to football performance programing, it seems difficult to prioritize 1 RT goal over another without neglecting others during 10-week summer training program. Prioritization of strength appears to have the best overall affect on the RT portion of an off-season football performance program. Nonlinear periodization allows for the prioritization of 1 training goal without disregarding others with a smaller risk of neglecting other important components. This investigation showed that a performance program with a nonlinear model and prioritization on strength had produced the most desirable results.

Changes in creatine kinase and cortisol in National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I American football players during a season.

The purpose of this study was to track creatine kinase (CK) and serum cortisol over an American college football season starting with the preseason practice. A secondary purpose was to observe changes in basic clinical chemistries. Twenty-two National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I football players (age: 20.4 ± 1.1 years, height: 188.27 ± 8.3 cm, weight: 115.8 ± 29.7 kg) volunteered to participate in this study. Each of the players had participated in the summer strength and conditioning supervised program. Resting blood samples were obtained just before the start of preseason practice (T-1), 2 weeks later (T-2), and the day after game 2 (T-3), game 4 (T-4), game 6 (T-5), and game 9 (T-6) of a 12-game season. Creatine kinase, a panel of clinical chemistries, cortisol, and testosterone were assayed at each time point. No significant changes in CK concentrations were observed over the season with peak values of each range ≤1,070.0 IU·L(-1), but the largest range was observed at T-6 after game 9 (119-2,834 IU·L(-1). The analysis of covariance analysis demonstrated that the number of plays in the ninth game (T-6) explained the magnitude of the changes in CK. No changes in serum cortisol concentrations were observed yet, again large variations existed with peak values of each range ≤465.0 nmol·L(-1). Clinical chemistries showed various significant changes from T-1, but none were considered clinically relevant changes for any player over the time course of the study. In conclusion, the strength and conditioning program before preseason camp or the structure of summer camp practices and the in-season strength and conditioning appeared to mute muscle damage and the stress response of cortisol. Such data demonstrate that changes in muscle damage and adrenal cortical stress over the season are minimal, yet large individual variations can be observed. Management of these variables appears to be related to optimal strength and conditioning and sports medicine programs. Thus, the greater concerns for student-athlete safety in the sport of American football are related to preventing sudden death, traumatic injury, and managing concussion syndromes.

Recovery from a national collegiate athletic association division I football game: muscle damage and hormonal status.

The purpose of this study was to examine markers of skeletal muscle tissue damage and circulating anabolic and catabolic hormones to gain insight into the recovery process from Friday until Monday, when a new practice week begins. Twenty-eight National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I football players gave consent to participate in the investigation in the ninth game of the season. Sixteen players started the game and played the entire game (PL), and 12 others did not play and were on the bench during the game (DNP). Each player had fasted blood samples obtained at the same time of day between 1000 and 1200 hours the day before the game (Friday; T1), 18-20 hours after the game (Sunday; T2), and then 42-44 hours after the game (Monday; T3). Blood samples were analyzed for concentrations of creatine kinase (CK), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), myoglobin, testosterone, and cortisol. The PL players showed significantly (p T1 and T3), myoglobin (T2 > T1 and T3), and LDH (T2 > T1). In contrast, DNP players showed significant differences in cortisol (T3 < T1 and T2) and testosterone:cortisol (T3 > T1). Few changes were observed in testosterone and cortisol changes, indicating stability of the anabolic/catabolic hormones. In conclusion, these data indicate that participation in a college football game late in the season results in some degree of tissue damage but with minimal hormonal responses, which seem to have stabilized at resting concentrations without predominance of cortisol's catabolic presence. As previously noted in the literature, some type of "contact adaptation" to the season may have occurred with regard to tissue damage responses. However, by the ninth game of a season, players do carry soft tissue damage levels above resting ranges into subsequent games, indicating that recovery should be monitored, with coaches being careful with scheduling scrimmage and full-contact drills. How such data implicate overuse injuries remains unclear, considering that hormonal status in this study was highly stable, with catabolic influences minimized by the high level of athlete conditioning. These data again support that high-level conditioning can stabilize anabolic and catabolic hormonal signals and limit acute soft tissue injury, making cerebral concussion (acute and chronic) and traumatic injury the biggest threats to a student-athlete's health and well-being during an American football game.

Isotopic criteria in the characterization of aromatic molecules. 1. Hydrogen affiliation in natural benzenoid/phenylpropanoid molecules.

The site-specific isotope ratios of several families of aromatic molecules are analyzed in terms of hydrogen affiliation and discriminating potential. Among the aromatic molecules produced by plants, many are biosynthesized by the shikimate pathway, but the terpenic pathway also forms some compounds with a benzenic ring. In compounds of the phenylpropanoid family, specific hydrogen connections are determined with cinnamic acid, a key intermediate in the formation of a large number of aromatic molecules. Then affiliations through the phenylalanine precursor, back to the parent d-erythrose 4-phosphate and phosphoenolpyruvate molecules and finally to glucose, are considered. Typical isotopic profiles of the benzenic ring in natural, as compared to non-natural, molecules are defined. The dispersion observed in the (D/H)i ratios of the lateral chains is illustrative of diverse mechanistic responses and the role of exchange phenomena. The isotopic patterns of aromatic molecules pertaining to the terpenic family are drastically different from those of the shikimate descendants, and they exhibit much less variability. They enable the stereochemical affiliation of individual hydrogen atoms to be traced back first to the parent atoms in the common intermediate, geranyl diphosphate, then to the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and pyruvate couple involved in the DOXP pathway, and ultimately to the glucose precursor. The results illustrate the aptitude of the site-specific isotope ratios not only to authenticate natural with respect to chemical molecules but also to characterize different metabolic pathways and to reveal differences associated with the nature of the plant precursor.

Isotopic criteria in the characterization of aromatic molecules. 2. Influence of the chemical elaboration process.

Most valued natural aromatic molecules can be substituted by their low-cost chemical counterparts. Isotopic methods, which offer the most powerful tool to infer the origin of a molecule, are applied to the characterization of a large number of chemical aromatic species. Isotopic affiliation between precursors and products is investigated in several types of reactions: oxidation of benzyl chloride and benzyl alcohol and hydrolysis of benzylidene chloride and cinnamaldehyde. The isotopic parameters strongly depend not only on the type of process but, for a given process, on the experimental conditions of the reaction. Kinetic isotope effects occurring in several formylation reactions are estimated. It is shown that, in the drastic experimental conditions of many industrial processes, the benzenic hydrogen atoms may be affected by exchange phenomena. Consequently, the site-specific isotopic parameters of the ring fragment of chemical species are usually much less stable than those of the corresponding natural molecules biosynthesized in mild environments. The isotope ratios of substituents such as CH3, CH2Cl, and CHO are more resistant to exchange and provide useful criteria for characterizing both the raw materials and the process. It is shown in particular that radical hydrogen abstraction in toluene to produce benzyl chloride induces relatively moderate fractionation effects. In contrast, oxidation reactions frequently produce strong fractionation effects. In particular, industrial direct oxidation of toluene into benzaldehyde is characterized by deuterium enrichments at the formyl site, which may exceed 900 ppm. Taking into account the large magnitude and high variability of many fractionation effects occurring in chemical reactions, the isotopic fingerprint may provide unambiguous criteria, not only for excluding a natural origin and characterizing the type of process, but also for differentiating molecules synthesized by a given process in different industrial contexts. The isotopic fingerprint may therefore be used by manufacturers as a powerful label for characterizing their production batches.

Study of the influence of alcoholic fermentation and distillation on the oxygen-18/oxygen-16 isotope ratio of ethanol.

A laboratory procedure for the analysis of the oxygen-18/oxygen-16 isotope ratios of ethanol derived from sugars and fruit juices by pyrolysis-isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) has been applied to the study of isotopic fractionation induced by the isotope effects of fermentation and distillation. For both processes, an experimental model has been established to describe and explain the observed fractionation phenomena. It is shown that reproducible results can be obtained when appropriate analytical conditions are used. Moreover, the ability of ethanol to act as a reliable indicator of the (18)O/(16)O ratio of sugars in orange juice (and therefore to be used as an internal reference for detecting water addition) is demonstrated both in theory and in practice.

The fellowship of natural abundance 2H-isotopomers of monoterpenes.

Site-specific natural abundance hydrogen isotope ratios have been measured by deuterium-NMR in a wide variety of monoterpenes from numerous kinds of plants grown in different environments. Once the NMR signals have been assigned to the whole sets of isotopomers in the different molecules and schemes of connections to the parent isotopomers in the geranyl diphosphate (GPP) precursor have been defined, a very consistent set of isotopic profiles is evidenced. The results, which are incompatible with the mevalonate pathway, can be satisfactorily interpreted by considering the deoxyxylulose pathway (DOXP), which is now recognized as the usual route for monoterpene biosynthesis in plants. Strong deuterium depletion at ex-site 2 of GPP, accompanied by high isotope ratio values at site ex-6, are consistent with synthesis of GPP from isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP) molecules independently produced by the DOXP pathway. However, for a given molecular species, significant differences are observed as a function of the plant source, in particular at site ex-6 of GPP. Thus, monoterpenes from plants with a C3 metabolism are mostly characterized by relatively high values of (D/H)6, whereas C4 plants tend to show much lower values. This behavior may be attributed to more or less significant contributions of GPP resulting from the condensation of IPP with DMAPP produced by isomerization. The isotopic profile therefore enables the role of physiological and environmental factors on the relative importance of the "independent" and "isomerized" model to be estimated. More generally, isotope ratios at individual sites in geraniol can be traced back to the corresponding sites in GPP, then to sites of the IPP and DMAPP building blocks, then to the pyruvate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate DOXP active molecules, and finally to the carbohydrate photosynthetic precursor. Furthermore, the methylenic hydrogen atoms, which are enantiotopic in geraniol, become diastereotopic in chiral, and more specially in cyclic, monoterpenes. This provides an isotopic verification for the complete stereochemical chain of affiliation, and a way of estimating enantiomeric purity and whether intermolecular exchanges have taken place.

Improved detection of added water in orange juice by simultaneous determination of the oxygen-18/oxygen-16 isotope ratios of water and ethanol derived from sugars.

A procedure for the analysis of the oxygen-18/oxygen-16 isotope ratio of ethanol derived from the sugars of orange juice using the preparation steps of the SNIF-NMR method followed by pyrolysis-isotope ratio mass spectrometry is presented. The isotopic fractionation induced by the isotope effects of fermentation and distillation have been investigated, and it is shown that reproducible results can be obtained when appropriate analytical conditions are used. It is also shown that the oxygen isotope distribution in the water and organic matter pools of fruits remains quite stable during the harvest period and is not altered by the precipitation rate within the last few days before the fruits are picked. Due to the robustness of the method and the fact that most of the oxygen-18 enrichment from the initial sugars is still present in the end-product, ethanol appears as a convenient internal reference to circumvent the spatial and temporal variability observed for the oxygen-18/oxygen-16 isotope ratio of water. A very strong correlation is observed between the isotopic deviations of ethanol and water, which is altered in the event of a water addition, even at a low level. Combining the information brought by these two parameters leads to a more efficient authenticity testing tool, which avoids false positive cases and provides a lower detection limit for added water in juices not made from concentrate, whatever the origin of the sample tested.

Comparison of isotopic fractionation in lactic acid and ethanol fermentations.

Pure D(-) and L(+) enantiomers of lactic acid were prepared by fermentation reactions with specific bacteria. In addition, naturally deuterated ethanol was prepared and converted into diastereoisomers using mandelic acid. Various sugars and nutrients were fermented into lactic acid in water having different deuterium contents and ethanol samples were obtained from yeast fermentation of sugars from different botanical origins. The methine and methylene groups in lactic acid and ethanol respectively show similar deuterium contents which are related to that found in the fermentation water. However, the methyl groups of both molecules are significantly different whatever the botanical origin of the carbon source in the fermentation medium.

Authentication of natural vanilla flavorings: isotopic characterization using degradation of vanillin into guaiacol.

The isotopic investigation of vanillin has been extended to the new sources of natural precursors of vanillin recently introduced with a view of obtaining natural vanillin by biotechnological processes. To check the consistency of the isotopic composition of vanillin with that of the corresponding aromatic fragment, a selective degradation reaction into guaiacol was carried out. The reaction was shown to proceed without significant isotopic fractionation at the sites of interest, and an optimized procedure was defined from the results of an experimental design involving the quantity of reagent and the temperature and duration of the experiment. Guaiacol, which can be easily obtained in a reasonable time, is an interesting isotopic probe for carbon- and oxygen-isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) determinations. It provides (13)C information specific to the aromatic fragment and, combined with delta(13)C values measured on vanillin itself, it improves the authentication potential of carbon-IRMS. Thus, the natural status of ferulic acid may be characterized by significant (13)C depletion at the formyl site. Similarly, the oxygen-18 content of guaiacol is a better authentication tool than delta(18)O of vanillin because it does not suffer the drawback of being altered by chemical exchange of the sp(2) oxygen atom with water in industrial or laboratory procedures. Although collaborative studies are still necessary to improve the interlaboratory reproducibility of the delta(18)O parameters, consistent results can be obtained in an intralaboratory context. It is shown in particular that chemical oxidation of ferulic acid is characterized by a relative enrichment of the aromatic moiety of vanillin.