Contextual and behavioral influences on uncertainty in obsessive-compulsive disorder.

INTRODUCTION: Behavioral adaptation generally follows the contextual changes arising from the consequences (rewards and punishments) of an action. According to the reciprocal determinism model, there is a mutual influence between external context, cognitive processes and behavior. The maladaptive behaviors observed in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) have been hypothesized to result from the disruption of the interactions between these three entities. For this, we assessed the influence of error signals and checking behavior on prefrontal cortical functions during decision-making in 14 OCD patients and 14 matched healthy participants. METHODS: We used a behavioral task designed to elicit intolerance of uncertainty (IU) followed by the free expression of checking behaviors, which was coupled with functional magnetic resonance imaging. RESULTS: At the behavioral level, IU intensity was correlated to the number of checking behaviors in both checking OCD patients and healthy controls during decision-making. However, external error signals did not influence checking behaviors in OCD patients, whereas they appeared to trigger checking behaviors in healthy subjects. At the neural level, IU intensity was positively correlated with activation in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) in both the OCD and control groups. At the region of interest (ROI) level, error signals increased IU-related OFC activations; in contrast, checking behaviors contributed to decreasing these neural activations in the healthy subjects, but no such modulation was observed in the OCD patients. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show that IU-related OFC dysfunctions are not under the influence of the context and the behavioral response in OCD, suggesting that alterations of the dynamic features for this neural network may contribute to the expression of OCD symptoms.

[Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD)]. / Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD).

OBJECTIVE: Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) has replaced the old and ill-defined concept of dysmorphophobia since its introduction as a full-blown disorder in DSM-III-R in 1987. Since then, the body of knowledge on BDD has considerably increased. At the same time, cosmetic medicine and surgical procedures, for which the indications and outcomes of BDD should be taken into account, have become common. Hence, we decided to undertake a review of the literature on BDD aimed at French speaking practitioners. METHOD: We searched Medline for the literature on BDD and dysmorphophobia in English and in French and made a critical examination of findings resulting from those studies where the methodology was sound. RESULTS: BDD is frequent in the general population with a point prevalence between 1.7 and 2.4% and often severe. Delusive and non-delusive forms of BDD likely belong to the same entity and both respond to the same treatment. Serotonin reuptake inhibitors and cognitive behavioral therapies have demonstrated their efficacy in randomized controlled studies. Esthetic, medical and surgical treatments, which are very often sought after by BDD patients, have been shown to be ineffective and potentially harmful. DISCUSSION: Our review confirms the progress in knowledge on BDD. The most interesting results concern clinical characteristics, epidemiology in the general population, and treatment. The prevalence of BDD in the general population should prompt every practitioner to take this disorder into account when faced with the increasing demand for medical and surgical cosmetic procedures. Nevertheless, further research is needed, particularly on the demand of non psychiatric treatments by BDD patients and the way medical or surgical specialists manage it.

[Body dysmorphic disorder and cosmetic surgery: assessment of 24 subjects with a minimal defect in appearance 5 years after their request for cosmetic surgery]. / Body dysmorphic disorder et chirurgie esthétique: réévaluation de 24 sujets ayant un défaut minime de l'apparence 5 ans après leur demande de chirurgie esthétique.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effect of cosmetic surgery in patients with a minimal defect in appearance, with and without body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), 5 years after their request for plastic surgery. METHODS: Thirty patients requesting cosmetic surgery with a minimal defect in appearance, 12 diagnosed with BDD and 18 not, were contacted 5 years later for a telephone interview about their cosmetic surgery, their satisfaction with it, BDD diagnosis, handicap, and psychiatric comorbidity. RESULTS: Of the 30 patients, we were able to re-evaluate 24 subjects (80%), 10 with BDD and 14 without. Seven BDD subjects had undergone cosmetic surgery compared with 8 without BDD. Patient satisfaction with the intervention was high in both groups. Nevertheless at follow-up, 6 of the 7 BDD patients who had surgery still had a BDD diagnosis and showed higher levels of handicap and psychiatric comorbidity than their non-BDD counterparts. Moreover, 3 non-BDD patients had developed BDD at follow-up. DISCUSSION: The high level of satisfaction with their surgery expressed by BDD patients was surprising and in contrast to the literature. It may explain, together with the patients' strong insistence, why plastic surgeons do not fully agree with psychiatrists on the contraindication of plastic surgery for BDD patients. Nevertheless in our study, most of the BDD patients were still diagnosed with BDD 5 years after surgery, with a significant handicap. The BDD diagnosis at follow-up in patients initially without BDD might be related to the presence of sub-threshold symptoms at the initial evaluation. CONCLUSION: This prospective study confirms that cosmetic surgery is not effective against BDD despite patients' reported satisfaction. Cosmetic surgery had no significant effects on BDD diagnosis, handicap or psychiatric comorbidity in BDD patients 5 years after surgery. Furthermore, BDD appeared at follow-up in some subjects not initially diagnosed. Patients' reported satisfaction with surgery may help explain why some plastic surgeons do not consider BDD a complete contraindication to cosmetic surgery.

Inverse relationship between thalamic and orbitofrontal volumes in obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Volumetric magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) have reported a smaller volume of the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and a larger volume of the thalamus compared with healthy controls. Both of these brain regions are strongly connected; therefore, it may be hypothesized that cortical and thalamic alterations are related. Here, we investigated the relationship between thalamic and orbitofrontal volumes in OCD patients relative to healthy controls. MRI volumetric measurements of the thalamus and the OFC were obtained in 16 OCD patients without comorbidity and 16 comparison subjects matched for age, sex and educational level. Partial correlation analyses that controlled for intracranial volume (ICV) were performed to explore relationships between thalamic and OFC volumes in each group. In order to assess the specificity of this relationship, we conducted similar analyses of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) as a non-OFC cortical volume. Finally, by using data from previously published volumetric MRI studies, we conducted a meta-regression to explore the relationships between volume changes in these regions of interest. Results showed that thalamic volumes were significantly negatively correlated with OFC volumes in OCD patients (r=-0.83, p<0.001), but not in healthy subjects (r=-0.15, p=0.59). A significant relationship between thalamic and ACC volumes was found neither in the OCD patients (r=0.03, p=0.91) nor in the comparison subjects (r=-0.23, p=0.40). Furthermore, meta-regression analyses showed that previously reported volume changes in the thalamus were significantly correlated with OFC volume changes (r=-0.71, p<0.05), but not with ACC volume changes (r=0.07, p=0.86). Although our results do not allow for any causal relationship to be established, they suggest that structural alterations of both the thalamus and the OFC are inversely and specifically related in OCD.

Distinct striatal targets in treating obsessive-compulsive disorder and major depression.

The ventral striatum, including the head of the caudate nucleus and the nucleus accumbens, is a putative target for deep brain stimulation (DBS) in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and major depression (MD). However, the respective roles of these structures in the pathophysiology of OCD and MD remain to be clarified. To address this issue, DBS of the ventral striatum was tested in 2 patients with severely distressing and intractable forms of OCD and MD. Comparisons of clinical outcomes and anatomical data on electrode positioning showed that caudate nucleus stimulation preferentially alleviated OCD manifestations, whereas nucleus accumbens stimulation improved depressive symptoms. These findings suggest that the caudate nucleus and nucleus accumbens participate differently in the pathogenesis of both of these psychiatric conditions.

Body dysmorphic disorder and cosmetic surgery: evolution of 24 subjects with a minimal defect in appearance 5 years after their request for cosmetic surgery.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effect of cosmetic surgery and the stability of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) diagnosis in patients with a minimal defect in appearance, with and without BDD, 5 years after their request for plastic surgery. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Thirty patients requesting cosmetic surgery with minimal defect in appearance, of whom 12 had BDD and 18 did not, were re-evaluated 5 years later by telephone interview regarding their cosmetic surgery interventions, satisfaction with the intervention, BDD diagnosis, handicap, and psychiatric comorbidity. RESULTS: Of the 30 patients, we were able to re-evaluate 24 subjects (80%), 10 with BDD and 14 non-BDD. Seven BDD subjects had undergone cosmetic surgery vs 8 non-BDD. Patient satisfaction with the intervention was high in both groups. Nevertheless at follow-up, 6 of the 7 operated BDD patients still had a BDD diagnosis and exhibited higher levels of handicap and psychiatric comorbidity compared to their non-BDD counterparts. Moreover, 3 non-BDD patients had developed a BDD at follow-up. CONCLUSION: This prospective study confirms that cosmetic surgery is not efficient on BDD despite declared patient satisfaction. Cosmetic surgery had no significant effects on BDD diagnosis, handicap or psychiatric comorbidity in BDD patients at 5-year follow-up. Furthermore, BDD appeared at follow-up in some initially non-BDD diagnosed subjects. Patients' declared satisfaction with surgery may contribute to explain why some plastic surgeons may not fully adhere to the contraindication of cosmetic surgery in BDD.

Social phobia and premature ejaculation: a case-control study.

In a previous case-control study, we found marked differences between a group of patients with male sexual disorders and a control group without any sexual disorder regarding the percentage of social phobia (SP) in each group. On this basis, our aim in this study was to test the hypothesis that premature ejaculation (PE) as a specific sexual disorder and SP might be strongly related, by comparing subjects with PE to a control group without any sexual disorder regarding the diagnosis of SP. Subjects with PE were recruited at private practice sexology settings in France. Control subjects were recruited among inpatients in a surgical ward. Diagnosis of SP was made with the Composite International Diagnostic Interview. Diagnosis of PE was clinician-rated according to DSM-IV criteria. Eighty-five subjects with PE only were compared to 93 control subjects without any sexual disorder. Forty (47%) subjects with PE versus 8 (9%) controls were diagnosed with SP (chi(2)=3.35, df=1, P=.001). Logistical analysis showed that SP and PE were strongly associated (odds ratio=10.97, 95% CI=4.49-26.06; chi(2)=28.28, df=1, P=.0001). This study is the first to show a clear relationship between SP and PE. Although requiring confirmation by further studies, this finding has immediate clinical consequences given that SP and PE can be treated by the same medication, a selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitor (SSRI). Moreover, since SP is a likely risk factor for PE, this might argue for preventive action on both disorders in children.

Use of psychotropic drugs in 0 to 5 years old children in Aquitaine (France): prevalence and associated factors.

PURPOSE: To describe the use of psychotropic drugs in children aged 0-5 years, in the Aquitaine region of South-west France and identify associated socio-demographic, familial and medical factors. METHODS: Data used in this study come from the regional drug claims database of the National Health Insurance System of Aquitaine and from postal self-questionnaires sent to parents and prescribing physicians. RESULTS: In Aquitaine, psychotropic drugs were redeemed at least once in 2002 for 3.2% of young children. Hydroxyzine, niaprazide or diazepam were claimed at least once by 2.7% of children registered in the database. Prescribers were mostly general practitioners (76.7%) and pediatricians (20.1%). Psychotropic claims were more frequent in children having the highest number of medical consultations in 2002 (more than 7: odds ratio (OR) = 1.5 [95% confidence interval (CI): 1.3-1.7]) or of drug deliveries (7-15 deliveries: OR = 1.8 [95%CI: 1.6-2.1]; more than 15 deliveries: OR = 3.2 [95%CI: 2.7-3.9]). Psychotropic claim frequency increased with age. No association of psychotropic use with parental psychotropic use, socio-professional category and familial situation was found. CONCLUSIONS: Psychotropic delivery prevalence in Aquitaine in young children was below 5% in 2002. It notably concerned drugs of which the use is not devoid of toxicity because of anticholinergic properties.

Deep brain stimulation of the ventral caudate nucleus in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder and major depression. Case report.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is an anxiety disorder associated with recurrent intrusive thoughts and repetitive behaviors. Although conventional pharmacological and/or psychological treatments are well established and effective in treating OCD, symptoms remain unchanged in up to 30% of patients. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the anterior limb of the internal capsule has recently been proposed as a possible therapeutic alternative in treatment-resistant OCD. In the present study, the authors tested the hypothesis that DBS of the ventral caudate nucleus might be effective in a patient with intractable severe OCD and concomitant major depression. Psychiatric assessment included the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS), the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS), the Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HARS), and the Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) Scale for determining the symptom severity of OCD, depression, and anxiety as well as the quality of pychosocial and occupational functioning, respectively. Neuropsychological assessment consisted of a wide range of tests primarily exploring memory and executive functions. Deep brain stimulation of the ventral caudate nucleus markedly improved symptoms of depression and anxiety until their remission, which was achieved at 6 months after the start of stimulation (HDRS < or = 7 and HARS < or = 10). Remission of OCD (Y-BOCS < 16) was also delayed after 12 or 15 months of DBS. The level of functioning pursuant to the GAF scale progressively increased during the 15-month follow-up period. No neuropsychological deterioration was observed, indicating that DBS of the ventral caudate nucleus could be a promising strategy in the treatment of refractory cases of both OCD and major depression.