Energetic and Cognitive Demands of Treading Water: Effects of Technique and Expertise.

Being able to tread water effectively can improve the likelihood of survival following accidental immersion. People tread water in various ways, ranging from rudimentary 'doggy-paddle' to more elaborate techniques like the eggbeater, but little is known about the energetic and cognitive requirements of treading water. We therefore aimed to measure the demands of treading water techniques for people of different experience levels. Three cohorts, comprising 21 adult water treading experts (water polo players), 15 intermediate swimmers and 16 inexperienced swimmers, treaded water for 3 min each using four different techniques while cognitive and energetic economy measures were taken. For inexperienced swimmers, the flutter kick and breaststroke patterns produced the lowest self-reported physical and task load (rating of perceived exertion, NASA task load index), while cognitive (probe reaction time), cardiac (heart rate) and metabolic (oxygen consumption) load did not differ between techniques. In contrast, for expert water treaders, both breaststroke and eggbeater patterns produced lower cognitive, cardiac and metabolic loads. For intermediate swimmers, breaststroke resulted in the lowest cardiac and metabolic loads, as well as self-reported task load. Probe reaction time was highest while performing the eggbeater technique, indicating that this technique was challenging to coordinate and cognitively demanding. While the energetic demands of antiphase kicking patterns (such as eggbeater in experts or flutter kick in beginners) may be similarly low, the symmetric coordination of upright breaststroke may explain why this pattern's cognitive economy was favourable for all groups. As the eggbeater can be challenging to perform for many people, an upright breaststroke technique is an adequate alternative to adopt in survival situations.

The Rowing-Specific Reinvestment Scale.

This research project aimed to develop and validate a rowing-specific reinvestment scale. In Study 1, a 24-item questionnaire was developed and the content validity was assessed using experts (N = 7) and pilot-tested in rowers (N = 24). Next, rowers (N = 282) completed the questionnaire with the remaining items, and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted. This further reduced the number of items and revealed two factors, rowing specific conscious motor processing (RS-CMP) and movement self-consciousness (RS-MSC). In Study 2, rowers (N = 270) completed the scale that was evaluated using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Moreover, the construct validity of the scale was investigated by asking them to complete measures of movement-specific reinvestment, perceived performance, self-consciousness, and state anxiety. Actual performance was also determined based on their race finishing position. Study 1 EFA resulted in a 2-factor model with six items assessing RS-CMP and six items assessing RS-MSC. Study 2 supported the factor structure of scale; CFA indicated an acceptable model fit with good internal consistency. Content validity was also supported, with evidence of concurrent, convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity. In conclusion, these studies provided good initial evidence for the validity and reliability of the RSRS.

The effects of fatigued working memory functions on hypothesis testing during acquisition of a motor skill.

Implicit motor learning paradigms aim to minimize verbal-analytical engagement in motor performance. Some paradigms do this by decreasing working memory activity during practice, which reduces explicit processes associated with the search for motor solutions (e.g., hypothesis testing). Here we designed a mentally demanding motor task to fatigue working memory prior to motor practice and then tested whether it reduced hypothesis testing. Fifty-nine participants were randomly assigned to complete the mentally demanding motor task (cognitive fatigue group) or to complete an undemanding motor task (nonfatigued control group). Feelings of fatigue, working memory functions, electroencephalography (EEG) Fz power, and vagal control were assessed pre- and posttask to quantify the effect of the mentally demanding motor task on cognitive fatigue. Thereafter, an adapted shuffleboard task was completed to determine the impact on hypothesis testing. Hypothesis testing was assessed by self-report, technique changes, and equipment-use solutions. Additionally, verbal-analytical engagement in motor performance was (indirectly) gauged with EEG T7-Fz connectivity and T7 power measures. Participants in the cognitive fatigue group reported more fatigue and displayed moderated working memory functions and Fz theta power. During practice of the shuffleboard task, participants also displayed more technique changes and higher verbal-analytical engagement in motor planning (EEG T7-Fz connectivity), compared with participants in the control group. The mentally demanding motor task suppressed working memory functions, but resulted in more, rather than less, hypothesis testing during shuffleboard practice. The implications are discussed in the context of implicit motor learning theory. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

A Multidisciplinary Comparison of Different Techniques Among Skilled Water Treaders.

In an immersion incident, a person may be required to tread water for extended periods of time in order to survive. Treading water, or maintaining a stable head position above the water surface, can be achieved in several different ways. Determining which treading water techniques are economic (energetically and cognitively) is an important first step in approaching evidence-based water safety instruction. The present study investigated the cognitive and metabolic demands associated with four main techniques for treading water in experienced water treaders. Skilled water treaders (n=21) performed four common treading techniques for 3min each: "running" in the water, "flutter kick" with hands sculling, "upright breaststroke," and "egg-beater." Self-reported rate of perceived exertion (RPE) and task load index (TLX) score, as well as objective measures of probe reaction time (PRT; i.e., response to auditory cues while treading), oxygen consumption and heart rate were assessed. The "egg-beater" technique and the "upright breaststroke" technique were linked to significantly lower cognitive and energetic demands compared to the other techniques (VO2: p<0.001 - "Running" M=29.02, SD=7.40/"Flutter kick" M=29.37, SD=8.56, "Breaststroke" M=23.47, SD=7.28, and "Eggbeater" M=23.18, SD=6.31). This study lays the groundwork for future research that may establish the ideal movement behavior in drowning situations and investigate movement instruction to less experienced treaders.

Examining the Antecedent Role of Movement Proficiency in Child Development: Study Protocol.

Background: Decades of research, largely from associational studies, show that the relationships of movement proficiency with the cognitive and social aspects of development are particularly strong in early childhood. Children who move proficiently tend to have better cognitive skills and social behaviors. However, the mechanisms that underpin these relationships remain unclear and research that explores causation is necessary. This study will explore the antecedent role of movement proficiency in the cognitive and social domains of child development, by examining whether a targeted movement skills training program facilitates improvements in cognitive and social skills. Methods: A group-randomized controlled trial will be conducted, implementing a fundamental movement skills training program in Hong Kong kindergartens. Participants will consist of children aged 3-5 years (N = 158) who will be randomly allocated by class to either a training or active control condition. The training program (10 weeks × 2 bouts) will be informed by an error-reduced approach to skills learning, which will involve careful design and manipulation of equipment and training environment to minimize practice errors. The active control condition will consist of typical movement activities implemented in the kindergartens in the context of the local curriculum guide. Outcomes will be measured using standardized tests of gross motor skills proficiency, executive functioning, and social skills. Measurements will occur at baseline, mid-training, post-training, and follow-up. Latent variable longitudinal modeling will be used to analyze changes in the outcomes, with covariates that include sex, body composition, fine motor skills, and physical activity. Expected Results: The findings will subsequently be reported consistent with the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) statement. Contributions to knowledge and understanding of child development are expected, through evidence of causal mechanisms surrounding the relationship of motor with cognitive and social development. The findings will also inform policy and practice related to early childhood development and education.

Effect of errorless learning on the acquisition of fine motor skills in pre-clinical endodontics.

This study aimed to evaluate the impact of errorless and errorful learning, on acquisition of root canal hand-instrumentation skills. Dental students prepared standardised canals of different diameters and curvatures. Learning involved minimising (errorless: n = 21) or maximising errors (errorful: n = 21). Students who had completed accredited pre-clinical activities provided comparative data (n = 17). During testing, the distal canal of a plastic mandibular molar was prepared, first as a single task and then under multi-tasking conditions. Performance was assessed by preparation accuracy and time. Differences were assessed using anova (P < 0.05). Performance in the experimental groups was similar during learning. When multi-tasking, errorful learners showed a deterioration in preparation accuracy (P < 0.05). In contrast, preparation accuracy and completion times for the errorless and comparative groups remained stable when multi-tasking. Errorless learning resulted in stable performance under multi-tasking conditions. Investigation of alternative approaches to learning motor skills in dentistry is warranted as such approaches may provide better outcomes, especially under demanding conditions.

Development of a Psychometric Measure of the Propensity to Consciously Control and Monitor Speech Production.

Purpose A speech-specific reinvestment scale (SSRS) is a psychometric measure of the propensity to consciously control and monitor speech production. This study develops and validates an SSRS as well as examines its relationship with speech performance with the moderating effects of trait social anxieties (i.e., social interaction anxiety, public speaking anxiety, and social phobia). Method Scale development involves the following stages: (a) initial item generation based on relevant literature, (b) item evaluation through cognitive interviews with 24 healthy respondents, (c) scale reliability and validity tests using cross-sectional survey data from 498 healthy respondents, and (d) test-retest reliability assessment using longitudinal survey data from 185 healthy respondents. Respondents' speech performance is quantified using speech examination scores. Hierarchical moderated regression analyses are conducted to examine the moderating effects of trait social anxieties. Results The validated SSRS comprises 35 items, which can be categorized into four subdimensions, namely, speech movement self-consciousness, public consciousness of speech content, speech manner, and speech movement. Results show that respondents with low trait social anxieties indicate a generally positive relationship between public consciousness of speech movement and speech performance, whereas respondents with high trait social anxieties exhibit a nonsignificant relationship. Conclusions SSRS offers a reliable and valid method for assessing the predisposition for conscious speech control and monitoring, which plays a role in speech performance and is moderated by an individual's level of trait social anxiety. SSRS is a potential assessment tool for speech-language pathologists to evaluate the impacts of conscious speech control and monitoring on individuals with speech impairment.

The role of conscious processing of movements during balance by young and older adults.

We examined the effect of verbalization of a phylogenetic motor skill, balance, in older and young adults with a low or a high propensity for conscious verbal engagement in their movements (reinvestment). Seventy-seven older adults and 53 young adults were categorized as high or low reinvestors, using the Movement Specific Reinvestment Scale, which assesses propensity for conscious processing of movements. Participants performed a pre- and post-test balance task that required quiet standing on a force-measuring plate. Prior to the post-test, participants described their pre-test balancing performance (verbalization) or listed animals (non-verbalization). Only young adults were affected by verbalization, with participants with a high propensity for reinvestment displaying increased medial-lateral entropy and participants with a low propensity for reinvestment displaying increased area of sway and medial-lateral sway variability following the intervention. The possible explanations for these results are discussed.

The Role of Movement-Specific Reinvestment in Visuomotor Control of Walking by Older Adults.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to examine the association between conscious monitoring and control of movements (i.e., movement-specific reinvestment) and visuomotor control during walking by older adults. METHOD: The Movement-Specific Reinvestment Scale (MSRS) was administered to 92 community-dwelling older adults, aged 65-81 years, who were required to walk along a 4.8-m walkway and step on the middle of a target as accurately as possible. Participants' movement kinematics and gaze behavior were measured during approach to the target and when stepping on it. RESULTS: High scores on the MSRS were associated with prolonged stance and double support times during approach to the stepping target, and less accurate foot placement when stepping on the target. No associations between MSRS and gaze behavior were observed. DISCUSSION: Older adults with a high propensity for movement-specific reinvestment seem to need more time to "plan" future stepping movements, yet show worse stepping accuracy than older adults with a low propensity for movement-specific reinvestment. Future research should examine whether older adults with a higher propensity for reinvestment are more likely to display movement errors that lead to falling.

Investigating Changes in Real-time Conscious Postural Processing by Older Adults during Different Stance Positions Using Electroencephalography Coherence.

Background/Study Context: Adjustments of posture in response to balance challenges may lead to subsequent increases in conscious posture processing. If cognitive resources are stretched by conscious processing of postural responses fewer resources will be available to attend to environmental trip or fall hazards. The objective of the study was to explore brain activity related to conscious processing of posture as a function of movement specific reinvestment and fear of falling. Method: Forty-three older adults (M = 71.4, SD = 4.1) stood with a wide or narrow stance on a force-plate while neural coherence between verbal-analytical (T3) and motor planning (Fz) regions of the brain was assessed using electroencephalography. The propensity for movement specific reinvestment was assessed using the Chinese version Movement Specific Reinvestment Scale (MSRS-C) and fear of falling was assessed using the Chinese version Fall Efficacy Scale International (FES-I[CH]). Results: Scores from the MSRS-C were negatively correlated with changes in T3-Fz coherence that occurred when participants shifted from wide to narrow stance. Together, MSRS-C and FES-I(CH) uniquely predicted the percentage change in T3-Fz coherence between the two stance conditions. Conclusion: Presented with two postural tasks of different complexities, participants with a lower propensity for conscious control of their movements (movement specific reinvestment) exhibited larger changes in real-time brain activity (neural coherence) associated with conscious postural processing.

Effects of Error Experience on Learning to Lower Speech Nasalance Level.

Purpose This research aims to examine the effects of error experience when learning to speak with lowered nasalance level. Method A total of 45 typical speakers were instructed to learn to lower speech nasalance level in either an errorless (restricted possibility for committing errors) or an errorful (unrestricted possibility for committing errors) learning condition. The nasality level of the participants' speech was measured by a nasometer and quantified by nasalance scores (in percent). Errorless learners practiced producing speech with lowered nasalance level with a threshold nasalance score of 50% (the easiest target) at the beginning, which gradually decreased to a threshold of 10% (the most difficult target) at the end. The same set of threshold targets was presented to errorful learners, but in reverse order. Errors were defined by the proportion of speech, with a nasalance score exceeding the threshold. Retention and transfer tests were administered. Results Errorless learners displayed fewer errors and lower mean nasalance scores than errorful learners during the acquisition phase. Furthermore, errorless learners achieved lower mean nasalance scores than errorful learners in the retention and transfer tests. Conclusion These results suggest that errorless learning is more effective than errorful learning and that error experience has a detrimental effect on the acquisition of a novel speech motor task that requires minimization of the nasality level. Errorless learning may be a useful paradigm for the intervention and management of hypernasality in clinical settings where behavioral treatments are needed.

Falling for a Fake: The Role of Kinematic and Non-kinematic Information in Deception Detection.

Kinematic and non-kinematic visual information have been examined in the context of movement anticipation by athletes, although less so in deception detection. This study examined the role of kinematic and non-kinematic visual information in the anticipation of deceptive and non-deceptive badminton shots. Skilled ( n = 12) and less skilled ( n = 12) badminton players anticipated the direction of deceptive and non-deceptive shots presented via video footage displayed in normal (kinematic and non-kinematic information), low (kinematic information emphasized), and high (non-kinematic information emphasized) spatial frequency conditions. Each shot was occluded one frame before shuttle-racquet contact or at contact. In deceptive trials, skilled players showed decreased anticipation accuracy in the high spatial frequency condition ( p = .050) compared to normal and low spatial frequency conditions, which did not differ. The study suggests that an emphasis on kinematic information results in accurate anticipation in response to deceptive movements and that an emphasis on non-kinematic information results in less accurate anticipation by experts.

Pattern recall, decision making and talent identification in rugby union.

The ability to make fast, accurate decisions is an essential skill for all who play sport. However, measuring this ability has proved difficult for coaches and talent identification practitioners. Pattern recognition (a key factor in decision making) has commonly been measured using pattern recall tasks. This study aimed to understand whether accuracy when recalling rugby union patterns is a valid measure of on-field decision making performance. In Study 1, professional players recalled structured patterns of players from still images (N = 20) viewed for 5 s. On-field decision-making markers, including coaches' rankings of decision-making ability, playing position, number of years playing professionally and total number of years playing rugby union, were used as predictor variables of recall accuracy. Results showed that only total number of years playing rugby union was correlated with recall accuracy, suggesting that caution is necessary when adopting these tasks for talent identification purposes. The structured stimuli used in Study 1 were not representative of a true rugby union game, so Study 2 tested novice and expert players on a pattern recall task that included structured, semi-structured and unstructured rugby union patterns. Experts were significantly more accurate than novices when recalling structured and semi-structured patterns; however, there were no differences when recalling unstructured patterns. It was concluded that structured and semi-structured patterns should be used in future studies to test whether pattern recall tasks can be used for talent identification in rugby union.

The immediate influence of implicit motor learning strategies on spatiotemporal gait parameters in stroke patients: a randomized within-subjects design.

OBJECTIVES:: To investigate immediate changes in walking performance associated with three implicit motor learning strategies and to explore patient experiences of each strategy. DESIGN:: Participants were randomly allocated to one of three implicit motor learning strategies. Within-group comparisons of spatiotemporal parameters at baseline and post strategy were performed. SETTING:: Laboratory setting. SUBJECTS:: A total of 56 community-dwelling post-stroke individuals. INTERVENTIONS:: Implicit learning strategies were analogy instructions, environmental constraints and action observation. Different analogy instructions and environmental constraints were used to facilitate specific gait parameters. Within action observation, only videotaped gait was shown. MAIN MEASURES:: Spatiotemporal measures (speed, step length, step width, step height) were recorded using Vicon 3D motion analysis. Patient experiences were assessed by questionnaire. RESULTS:: At a group level, three of the four analogy instructions ( n = 19) led to small but significant changes in speed ( d = 0.088 m/s), step height (affected side d = 0.006 m) and step width ( d = -0.019 m), and one environmental constraint ( n = 17) led to significant changes in step width ( d = -0.040 m). At an individual level, results showed wide variation in the magnitude of changes. Within action observation ( n = 20), no significant changes were found. Overall, participants found it easy to use the different strategies and experienced some changes in their walking performance. CONCLUSION:: Analogy instructions and environmental constraints can lead to specific, immediate changes in the walking performance and were in general experienced as feasible by the participants. However, the response of an individual patient may vary quite considerably.

Investigating an errorless learning approach for developing dental operative technique skills: A pilot study.

INTRODUCTION: Explicit instruction (conscious knowledge/rules) is generally used for learning dental operative skills; however, recent work has demonstrated advantages of learning skills implicitly with minimal accrual of conscious knowledge and reduced attentional demands. Therefore, this study examined the effects of learning handpiece manipulation skills explicitly (errorful) and implicitly (errorless: limited error detection/correction) under conditions of increased attentional demands (ie multitasking and additional instructions). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Non-dental university students were randomly assigned to errorless (n = 11) or errorful (n = 8) groups. They used pencil lead instead of a bur, with errorless learners shading shapes from simple (small circle) to complex (cross), while errorful learners shaded the shapes in reverse. During testing, they completed simulated cavities in baseline, additional instructions and multitask conditions. Learning performance was calculated as per cent of the shape shaded successfully. Test performance was computed as error in cavity length/depth and was compared with dental students who had completed their operative technique course (n = 14). RESULTS: Errorless learners were more accurate than errorful learners especially when shading difficult shapes (P = 0.042). With additional instructions, errorless and errorful learners did not differ in cavity depth (P = 0.057) or length (P = 0.540). When multitasking, errorless learners prepared the cavity length (P = 0.048) but not depth (P = 0.920) more accurately than errorful learners. Overall, performance of errorless learners was comparable to dental students. CONCLUSIONS: These preliminary findings suggest handpiece skills can be acquired implicitly via errorless learning, and it is less attentionally demanding than errorful learning, as evident by maintenance of preparation performance when processing additional relevant instructions and multitasking.

Perceptual Modification of the Built Environment to Influence Behavior Associated with Physical Activity: Quasi-Experimental Field Studies of a Stair Banister Illusion.

BACKGROUND: Re-engineering the built environment to influence behaviors associated with physical activity potentially provides an opportunity to promote healthier lifestyles at a population level. Here we present evidence from two quasi-experimental field studies in which we tested a novel, yet deceptively simple, intervention designed to alter perception of, and walking behavior associated with, stairs in an urban area. OBJECTIVES: Our objectives were to examine whether adjusting a stair banister has an influence on perceptions of stair steepness or on walking behavior when approaching the stairs. METHODS: In study 1, we asked participants (n = 143) to visually estimate the steepness of a set of stairs viewed from the top, when the stair banister was adjusted so that it converged with or diverged from the stairs (± 1.91°) or remained neutral (± 0°). In study 2, the walking behavior of participants (n = 36) was filmed as they approached the stairs to descend, unaware of whether the banister converged, diverged, or was neutral. RESULTS: In study 1, participants estimated the stairs to be steeper if the banister diverged from, rather than converged with, the stairs. The effect was greater when participants were unaware of the adjustment. In study 2, walking speed was significantly slower when the banister diverged from, rather than converged with, the stairs. CONCLUSIONS: These findings encourage us to speculate about the potential to economically re-engineer features of the built environment to provide opportunities for action (affordances) that invite physical activity behavior or even promote safer navigation of the environment.

Propensity for movement specific reinvestment by physiotherapists: Implications for education.

Previous studies have shown that the propensity for conscious monitoring and control of movement (i.e. movement specific reinvestment) influences the acquisition of movement skills. Physiotherapists, whose primary function is to promote effective human movement, also develop specialized movement skills that are necessary to perform diagnostic and therapeutic procedures. To explore the implications for promoting expertise, this current study examined physiotherapists' propensity for movement-specific reinvestment. Practitioners and students in physiotherapy, and other rehabilitation, and non-health professionals, completed the Movement Specific Reinvestment Scale, which measures two dimensions of reinvestment: 1) conscious motor processing (CMP); and 2) movement self-consciousness (MS-C). Physiotherapists scored significantly higher than other professionals on both CMP and MS-C. Specifically among physiotherapists, those with relatively fewer years of practice tended to have higher MS-C scores. Movement-specific reinvestment appears to be a characteristic of physiotherapists that could be relevant for understanding the ways in which novices think and act as they progress to expertise. Further research is recommended to examine the role of reinvestment in performance of different tasks of varying complexity by novice physiotherapists.

Intact Procedural Knowledge in Patients with Alzheimer's Disease: Evidence from Golf Putting.

Can Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients efficiently learn to perform a complex motor skill when relying on procedural knowledge? To address this question, the authors compared the golf-putting performance of AD patients, older adults, and younger adults in 2 different learning situations: one that promotes high error rates (thus increasing the reliance on declarative knowledge) or one that promotes low error rates (thus increasing the reliance on procedural knowledge). Motor performance was poorer overall for AD patients and older adults relative to younger adults in the high-error condition but equivalent between similar groups in the low-error condition. Also, AD patients in the low-error condition had better performance at the final putting distance relative to those in the high-error condition. This performance facilitation for AD patients likely stems from intact procedural knowledge.

The role of conscious control in maintaining stable posture.

This study aimed to examine the relationship between conscious control of movements, as defined by the Theory of Reinvestment (Masters & Maxwell, 2008; Masters, Polman, & Hammond, 1993), and both traditional and complexity-based COP measures. Fifty-three young adults (mean age=20.93±2.53years), 39 older adults with a history of falling (mean age=69.23±3.84years) and 39 older adults without a history of falling (mean age=69.00±3.72years) were asked to perform quiet standing balance in single- and dual-task conditions. The results showed that higher scores on the Movement Specific Reinvestment Scale (MSRS; Masters, Eves, & Maxwell, 2005; Masters & Maxwell, 2008), a psychometric measure of the propensity for conscious involvement in movement, were associated with larger sway amplitude and a more constrained (less complex) mode of balancing in the medial-lateral direction for young adults only. Scores on MSRS explained approximately 10% of total variation in the medial-lateral sway measures. This association was not apparent under dual-task conditions, during which a secondary task was used to limit the amount of cognitive resources available for conscious processing. No relationship between postural control and score on the MSRS was found for either older adult fallers or non-fallers. Possible explanations for these results are discussed.

The influence of below-knee compression garments on knee-joint proprioception.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of the study was to assess the influence of below-knee compression garments on proprioception accuracy under, information processing constraints designed to cause high or low conscious attention to the task. METHODS: In a counterbalanced, single-blinded, crossover trial, 44 healthy participants (26 male/18 female) with a mean age of 22.7±6.9 years performed an active joint repositioning task using their nondominant and their dominant leg, with and without below-knee compression and with and without conducting a secondary task. RESULTS: Analysis of variance revealed no main effect of leg dominance and no interactions (p's>0.05). However, a main effect was evident for both compression (F1, 43=84.23, p<0.001, ηp2=0.665) and secondary task (F1, 43=4.391, p=0.04, ηp2=0.093). CONCLUSIONS: The study is the first to evaluate the effects of a belowknee compression garment on knee proprioception under differential information processing constraints. We conclude that proprioception accuracy of the knee joint is significantly enhanced post application of below-knee compression garments and when a secondary task is conducted concurrently with active joint repositioning. The findings suggest that below-knee compression garments may improve proprioception of the knee, regardless of leg dominance, and that secondary tasks that direct attention away from proprioceptive judgments may also improve proprioception, regardless of the presence of compression. Clinical implications are discussed with respect to proprioception in modern.sports and rehabilitation settings.