Spanish experience on the design of radon surveys based on the use of geogenic information.

One of the requirements of the recently approved EU-BSS (European Basic Safety Standards Directive, EURATOM, 2013) is the design and implementation of national radon action plans in the member states (Annex XVIII). Such plans require radon surveys. The analysis of indoor radon data is supported by the existing knowledge about geogenic radiation. With this aim, we used the terrestrial gamma dose rate data from the MARNA project. In addition, we considered other criterion regarding the surface of Spain, population, permeability of rocks, uranium and radium contain in soils because currently no data are available related to soil radon gas concentration and permeability in Spain. Given that, a Spanish radon map was produced which will be part of the European Indoor Radon Map and a component of the European Atlas of Natural Radiation. The map indicates geographical areas with high probability of finding high indoor radon concentrations. This information will support legislation regarding prevention of radon entry both in dwellings and workplaces. In addition, the map will serve as a tool for the development of strategies at all levels: individual dwellings, local, regional and national administration.

The Spanish indoor radon mapping strategy.

Indoor radon mapping still represents a valuable tool for drawing the picture of the exposure of general public due to radon and radon progeny inhalation in a residential context. The information provided by means of a map is useful not only as awareness and strategic element for authorities and policy-makers, but also as a scientific start-up point in the design of epidemiological and other specific studies on exposure to natural radiation. The requirements for a good mapping are related to harmonisation criteria coming from European recommendations, as well as to national/local characteristics and necessities. Around 12,000 indoor radon measurements have been made since the Spanish national radon programme began at the end of the 1980s. A significant proportion of them resulted from the last campaign performed from 2009 to 12. This campaign completed the first version of a map based on a grid 10 × 10 km(2). In this paper, the authors present the main results of a new map together with the criteria adopted to improve the number of measurements and the statistical significance of them.

Realistic retrospective dose assessments to members of the public around Spanish nuclear facilities.

In the frame of an epidemiological study carried out in the influence areas around the Spanish nuclear facilities (ISCIII-CSN, 2009. Epidemiological Study of The Possible Effect of Ionizing Radiations Deriving from The Operation of Spanish Nuclear Fuel Cycle Facilities on The Health of The Population Living in Their Vicinity. Final report December 2009. Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Consejo de Seguridad Nuclear. Madrid. Available from: http://www.csn.es/images/stories/actualidad_datos/especiales/epidemiologico/epidemiological_study.pdf), annual effective doses to public have been assessed by the Spanish Nuclear Safety Council (CSN) for over 45 years using a retrospective realistic-dose methodology. These values are compared with data from natural radiation exposure. For the affected population, natural radiation effective doses are in average 2300 times higher than effective doses due to the operation of nuclear installations (nuclear power stations and fuel cycle facilities). When considering the impact on the whole Spanish population, effective doses attributable to nuclear facilities represent in average 3.5×10(-5)mSv/y, in contrast to 1.6mSv/y from natural radiation or 1.3mSv/y from medical exposures.

A regulatory perspective on the radiological impact of NORM industries: the case of the Spanish phosphate industry.

Radioactive and chemical risks coexist in NORM industries although they are usually addressed separately by regulations. The European Union (EU) has developed extensive legislation concerning both matters, which has been diversely reflected in national policies. We consider the case of the Spanish phosphate industry and analyse to which extent regulatory mandates have reduced the historical and ongoing radiological impact on the environment of phosphate facilities. Although no specific radiological constraints on effluent monitoring and release or on waste disposal have yet been imposed on NORM industries in Spain, other environmental regulations have achieved a substantial reduction on the phosphate industry impact. Nevertheless, a more efficient control could be established by eliminating the current conceptual and practical separation of chemical and radioactive risks in NORM industries. We highlight research needs to accomplish so and propose shorter-term measures that require active cooperation among the regulatory bodies involved.

Setting radon-specific release criteria and demonstrating compliance for land affected by NORM.

Residues from industrial activities involving naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORMs) may cause radiation exposures to members of the public, particularly when NORM-affected land is brought into residential use. To provide an adequate protection against radiation in such situations, the following limiting criteria are currently required in Spain for releasing NORM-affected land: (i) no more than a 300 microSv yr(-1) increase (excluding radon doses) over the natural background; (ii) (222)Rn concentrations in hypothetical future dwellings lower than 200 Bq m(-3); and (iii) reduction of all radiation exposures to as low as reasonable achievable. This paper addresses some of the problems encountered in translating the (222)Rn criterion into site-specific release limits and in demonstrating compliance with them.

Natural ionizing radiation exposure of the Spanish population.

This study investigates the exposure of the Spanish population to natural radiation sources. The annual average effective dose is estimated to be 1.6 mSv, taking into account contributions from cosmic radiation (18%), terrestrial gamma radiation (30%), radon and thoron inhalation (34%) and ingestion (18%). Cosmic radiation doses were calculated from town altitude data. Terrestrial gamma ray exposure outdoors were derived from the MARNA (natural gamma radiation map of Spain); indoor exposure was obtained multiplying the corresponding outdoor value by an experimentally calculated conversion factor. Radon doses were estimated from national surveys carried out throughout the country. To assess doses by ingestion, data from a detailed study on consumption habits in Spain and average radioactivity values from UNSCEAR have been considered. The variability in the exposures among individuals in the population has been explicitly taken into account in the assessment.

High background radiation areas: the case of Villar de la Yegua village (Spain).

The starting point of the Spanish experience in the study of High Background Radiation Areas is the development of a nationwide indoor radon survey carried out in 1988. This campaign, belonging to the first Spanish Radon Framework, consisted of approximately 2000 indoor radon measurements which represented a valuable basis to face rigorously the radon issue in Spain. Together but indepently from this survey, since 1991 the Spanish Nuclear Safety Council, the National Uranium Company and several Universities have developed the so-called MARNA project with the aim of estimating potential radon emission from external gamma dose rates, radium concentrations in soil and geological parameters. During the last decade, several regional surveys have also been conducted to determine exposure to natural sources of radiation in different highly populated background radiation areas. Among them, the surroundings of the village of Villar de la Yegua Town, located in the western province of Salamanca, is the most important area of Spain from a radiological point of view, with the highest indoor radon concentrations, of up to 15,000 Bq m(-3) being found there. Until now, the main result of the study in this area showed a geometric mean radon concentration of 818 Bq m(-3), which is 18 times higher than the national average. In this article, the results of the last survey, carried out in Villar de la Yegua during 2004 are summarised. A geometric mean radon concentration of 1356 Bq m(-3) was found. Dose estimation coming from radon inhalation is also shown.

Natural radiation exposure in the Campo Arañuelo region in the surroundings of Almaraz nuclear power station (Spain).

During 1998 regional surveys were conducted to evaluate natural radiation exposure of people in the vicinity of the six Spanish nuclear power stations. Indoor radon, external gamma dose rates outdoors and indoors and radioactivity in soil were measured in these surveys. The highest mean annual effective dose to the population was found in the surroundings of the Almaraz nuclear power plant in the province of Cáceres and was mainly due to the presence of high radon concentrations in homes. In order to make a more accurate assessment of the dose coming from the radon in this area, a new and more extensive surgery on indoor radon with a total of 380 measurements was carried out in 2000 in the Campo Arañuelo region around the Almaraz nuclear power station. From the results obtained in this survey, a population-weighted mean annual effective dose from radon exposure of 1.7 mSv y(-1), 44% lower than that previously reported in 1998, was estimated for the whole Campo Arañuelo region. The maximum dose value due to radon exposure, about 4 mSv y(-1), was reached in the so-called La Vera area located in the north of this region. The relationship between the indoor radon concentrates experimentally measured, the geological characteristics of this geographic area and the information provided by the radiation map of the Spanish MARNA Project is also analyzed, confirming that La Vera area should be considered as a high radon level area.

Population dose in the vicinity of old Spanish uranium mines.

Regional surveys were conducted to determine exposure to natural sources of radiation for people in the vicinity of old Spanish uranium mines. The surveys evaluated indoor radon concentrations and outdoor and indoor external gamma dose rates. Indoor radon concentrations were measured in 222 dwellings by means of nuclear track-etched detectors. The terrestrial gamma ray dose rate was measured outdoors and indoors at a total of 256 points and 115 points, respectively. Estimates mean annual effective doses for the six areas studied ranged from 3.2 to 5.1 mSv per year, which is between 1.2 and 2 times higher than the average national value.

Natural gamma radiation map (MARNA) and indoor radon levels in Spain.

During the last decade, the Department of Applied and Medical Physics has been involved in the development of a radiation protection programme. In the framework of this programme, measurements of indoor radon, principally, have been carried out nationwide. Geometric mean radon concentrations of 45 Bq m(-3) in the whole country and 130 Bq m(-3) in the high natural radiation area have been estimated. On the other hand, the so-called MARNA Project is developed into the framework of an agreement subscribed between the Spanish Nuclear Safety Council (CSN) and the National Uranium (ENUSA), the first phase of which has been the elaboration of the Natural Gamma Radiation Map of Spain on the scale of 1:1,000,000 using radiometric data generated in the 30 years of the lifetime of the ancient National Uranium Exploration and Investigation Plan mainly through airborne, carborne, and by foot surveys, within the MARNA Project itself. The lowest averaged dose rate from external gamma radiation (19.3 nGyh(-1)) was found in carbonate bedrock and the highest (87.7 nGyh(-1)) was found in granite and clay bedrock. This paper summarizes the main results obtained from the measurements performed in both projects, with special interest in those concerning the correlation between the data reported in order to conclude about the potential benefit of the MARNA maps in the definition of affected areas in the country.

Natural radiation exposure in the vicinity of Spanish nuclear power stations.

Nationwide and regional surveys have been conducted to evaluate natural radiation exposure of people in the vicinity of the Spanish nuclear power stations. In these surveys, indoor radon, external gamma dose rates outdoors and indoors and radioactivity in soils were measured. Measurements of indoor radon concentrations were performed in 214 dwellings by using nuclear track-etched detectors. External exposure from terrestrial gamma rays outdoors and indoors were measured in a total of 596 points. Radioactivity in soil samples collected at 293 sampling sites are also reported in this paper. By taking into account all sources of natural radiation exposure, mean annual effective doses to the population in the surroundings of the six Spanish nuclear power stations have been estimated and compared with those coming from their normal operation.