Agreement among response to intervention criteria for identifying responder status.

In order to better understand the extent to which operationalizations of response to intervention (RTI) overlap and agree in identifying adequate and inadequate responders, an existing database of 399 first grade students was evaluated in relation to cut-points, measures, and methods frequently cited for the identification of inadequate responders to instruction. A series of 543 2x2 measures of association (808 total comparisons) were computed to address the agreement of different operationalizations of RTI. The results indicate that agreement is generally poor and that different methods tend to identify different students as inadequate responders, although agreement for identifying adequate responders is higher. Approaches to the assessment of responder status must use multiple criteria and avoid formulaic decision making.

Teaching struggling readers who are native Spanish speakers: what do we know?

PURPOSE: The purpose of this article is to share what we have learned from a series of 4 scientific studies about preventing reading failure through early intervention with native Spanish-speaking students who are struggling readers. The goal is to provide guidance to practitioners about effective practices for working with native Spanish-speaking children who are struggling to become readers using evidence rather than conjecture and opinion. METHOD: First, the method and findings are summarized from each of 4 scientific studies (2 English, 2 Spanish) examining supplemental reading intervention that was provided in addition to core reading instruction in first grade. Second, the supplemental interventions are detailed. Next, aspects of instruction that appear to generalize from what we know about preventing reading failure among native English speakers are discussed. Last, the types of adjustments made to this instruction in order to accommodate the needs of English language learners are examined. IMPLICATIONS: Outcomes confirm that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit, systematic instruction that shared many of the same elements that have been proven to be effective with native English speakers. Further, English as a second language teaching techniques (i.e., use of concrete gestures and visual aids, consistent and repeated routines, and use of repeated phrases and consistent language) benefited native Spanish speakers who were struggling to learn to read in English. However, little transfer of knowledge from one language to another was detected.

Effectiveness of Spanish intervention for first-grade English language learners at risk for reading difficulties.

The effectiveness of an explicit, systematic reading intervention for first-grade students whose home language was Spanish and who were at risk for reading difficulties was examined. Participants were 69 students in 20 classrooms in 7 schools from 3 districts who initially did not pass the screening in Spanish and were randomly assigned within schools to a treatment or comparison group; after 7 months, 64 students remained in the study. The intervention matched the language of instruction of their core reading program (Spanish). Treatment groups of 3 to 5 students met daily for 50 min and were provided systematic and explicit instruction in oral language and reading by trained bilingual intervention teachers. Comparison students received the school's standard intervention for struggling readers. Observations during core reading instruction provided information about the reading instruction and language use of the teachers. There were no differences between the treatment and comparison groups in either Spanish or English on any measures at pretest, but there were significant posttest differences in favor of the treatment group for the following outcomes in Spanish: Letter-Sound Identification (d = 0.72), Phonological Awareness composite (d = 0.73), Woodcock Language Proficiency Battery-Revised Oral Language composite (d = 0.35), Word Attack (d = 0.85), Passage Comprehension (d = 0.55), and two measures of reading fluency (d = 0.58-0.75).

The prevention and identification of reading disability.

There is abundant evidence that intervention for the prevention of reading disability is effective in dramatically reducing the prevalence of reading disability. This article explores the current state of knowledge regarding the causation and prevalence of reading disability, along with evidence that the incidence of this condition can be dramatically reduced through quality intervention. Specifically, we (1) explore what is known about the nature and causes of reading disability, (2) examine how reading disability can best be identified, and (3) estimate the percentage of children that have severe reading difficulties that indicate the true presence of a disability.

Brain activation profiles during the early stages of reading acquisition.

In the present study, we demonstrate for the first time the presence of an aberrant brain mechanism for reading in children who have just started acquiring reading skills. Children who, at the end of kindergarten, are found to be at risk for developing reading problems display markedly different activation profiles than children who have, at this stage, already mastered important prereading skills. This aberrant profile is characterized by the lack of engagement of the left-hemisphere superior temporal region, an area normally involved in converting print into sound, and an increase in activation in the corresponding right-hemisphere region. This finding is consistent with current cognitive models of reading acquisition and dyslexia, pointing to the critical role of phonologic awareness skills in learning to read.