The Moderating and Mediating Role of Responsive Parenting Behavior in Explaining the Link between Intimate Partner Violence and Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms in Young Children.

Responsive parenting serves an influential role in explaining the link between children's exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV) and children's mental health impairment, but how this occurs is not well elucidated. In some cases, researchers examine parenting as a mediator to explain how IPV leads to maladaptive outcomes (i.e., IPV negatively impacts one's capacity for responsive parenting, which in turn impacts children), whereas others examine moderation in which either the absence of responsive parenting exacerbates adverse outcomes or increased responsive parenting buffers risk. Mediation addresses theoretical questions about how or why IPV leads to maladaptive outcomes, whereas moderation addresses who might be most impacted. However, responsive parenting has rarely, if ever, been tested as both a mediator and moderator of the link between IPV and posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) within the same sample. The current study examined the mediating and moderating role of responsive parenting on physical IPV exposure and child PTSS in a longitudinal sample of 391 children ages 3 to 5 years (M = 4.74, SD = 0.89). Self-report measures of physical IPV exposure, parenting practices, and PTSS were completed by mothers. We found that responsive parenting significantly moderated and mediated the association between physical IPV exposure and child PTSS over time. Studies that include tests of both moderation and mediation are critical for advancing mechanistic insight into the role of parenting in the etiology of mental health impairment in children exposed to IPV.

The differential impact of COVID-19 on the psychological stress of post-9/11 veterans: Gender, race, and ethnicity.

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to economic turndowns, social restrictions, and family life alterations. The stress induced by the public health crisis and its consequences are beginning to be explored. This study examined stress experiences since the pandemic'sonset in work, financial, social, and health domainsamong a large sample of post-9/11, United States military veterans. The sample, who separated from active-duty service or deactivated from active status in a reserve component in 2016, completed an online survey (n = 3180) in 2020. Participants were 70% White non-Hispanic, 81% male, and had an average age of 38 years. Frequencies and descriptive statistics were calculated. Female veterans and veterans of colour reported significantly higher levels of stress across most life domains. The results suggest White, male, post-9/11 veterans may be somewhat protected from COVID-19 stress, but that the pandemic is exacerbatinghealth and social disparities experienced by post-9/11 veterans of colour and female veterans. Supports and comprehensive care, particularly targeted towardsat-risk populations, are likely needed to provide sufficient resources for resiliency during and after the pandemic.

The Effects of Adverse Childhood Experiences and Warfare Exposure on Military Sexual Trauma Among Veterans.

Military sexual trauma (MST) is a pervasive problem; this study examined the relationship of the precursory traumas of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and warfare exposure with MST. Post-9/11 veterans were surveyed at 3 months and at 24 to 30 months post-military separation. Female veterans who experienced at least 1 ACE but no warfare exposure were significantly more likely to receive unwanted sexual attention. Veterans (males and females) experiencing three or more ACEs but no warfare exposure were significantly more likely to receive unwanted sexual attention and contact. Experiencing only warfare exposure was not related to unwanted sexual attention or contact for females; however, a significant interaction was found between combined warfare exposure, ACEs, and MST for males and females. Veterans who reported warfare exposure and one to two or three or more ACEs were more likely to report unwanted sexual attention and/or contact. Exploration of individual ACEs revealed a significant relationship between childhood sexual abuse and unwanted sexual contact. For females, witnessing domestic violence predicted unwanted sexual contact. There was also a significant interaction between childhood sexual abuse and warfare exposure. Females who experienced both childhood sexual abuse and warfare exposure were significantly more likely to receive unwanted sexual attention and unwanted sexual contact. Albeit a small sample, males who experienced both were also significantly more likely to receive unwanted sexual attention. The findings reveal that precursory traumatic experiences in childhood and the interaction of ACEs and warfare exposure during military service can increase the likelihood of unwanted sexual attention and contact. This research further substantiates the need for screening efforts. It also demonstrates the importance of practitioners engaging in trauma-informed care principles and practices to address the residual effects of previous experiences during sexual trauma or mental health treatment efforts.

The Moral Injury Symptoms Scale-Military Version-Short Form: Further Scale Validation in a U.S. Veteran Sample.

This study assessed the Moral Injury Symptoms Scale - Military Version - Short Form's (MISS-M-SF) factor structure and construct validity. Participants included 3650 combat-deployed U.S. veterans who answered all 10 MISS-M-SF items from the sixth wave of The Veterans Metric Initiative (TVMI). EFA results suggested a two-factor solution, based on item wording, fit best. CFA results indicated a bifactor model (one general factor and two method factors, based on item wording) fit best. Further investigation revealed that a one-factor model could be used despite the data's multidimensionality. Item-level analyses revealed four items represented the general factor exceptionally well, potentially simplifying assessment in research and clinical applications. Construct validity was also demonstrated through moderate to high correlations with conceptually related measures.

The subjective underemployment experience of post-9/11 veterans after transition to civilian work.

BACKGROUND: Underemployment is a challenge for the civilian workforce and a particular risk for veterans as they transition from military service to civilian employment. Workers' economic and demographic characteristics factor into underemployment risk. Veterans may be at greater risk due to specific economic and demographic factors, transitional factors (e.g., geographic relocation), and characteristics of their military service (e.g., military skill alignment with civilian jobs). OBJECTIVES: Describe underemployment experiences in employed post-9/11 veterans three years after their military transition to the civilian workforce. METHODS: The current study uses self-reported underemployment experience data from a longitudinal study of transitioning veterans. This study compares average perceptions of veteran underemployment experiences by specific groups (e.g., by race, gender, and paygrade) using analysis of variance and logistic regression. RESULTS: Veterans reported underemployment in their current jobs based on a perceived mismatch between the skills, education, and/or leadership experience they gained during military service. CONCLUSIONS: Veterans who were enlisted rank, identified as non-White, completed a bachelor's degree, and indicated PTSD symptoms reported higher pervasive underemployment. Intervention implications for the results, such as employer and veteran employment supports, are discussed.

Maternal posttraumatic stress predicts Mother-Child Symptom Flare-Ups over Time.

Although concurrent associations between parent and child posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) have been well-documented, few longitudinal studies have examined bidirectional influences by modeling the effects of both parent and child PTSS simultaneously over time. The current study examines patterns of PTSS in children and their mothers beginning in preschool and continuing through elementary school age (ages 4-9 years) in a large, heterogeneous sample (N = 331 mother-child dyads). Mothers reported on their own and their child's posttraumatic stress symptoms. A random intercept cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM) was used to examine associations between symptoms across six time points. Results indicated that maternal and child symptoms were associated with each other at concurrent time points and tended to fluctuate in a synchronized manner relative to their overall mean symptom levels. Longitudinal cross-lagged paths were significant from mother to child, but non-significant from child to mother, suggesting that mothers' symptom fluctuation at one time point predicted significant fluctuation in children's symptoms at the subsequent time point. The concurrent co-variation of maternal and child symptoms and the predictive nature of maternal symptom flare-ups have important implications for both maternal and child mental health interventions and underscore the importance of attending to mothers' symptomatology early in treatment.

The influence of employment program components upon job attainment during a time of identity and career transition.

This study assessed the effectiveness of employment programs components, which resulted in the identification of content and process components that increase employability. Employment program use was studied among 1172 United States of America military veterans to determine which content (i.e., interviewing skills) and process (i.e., working with a mentor/coach) components influence job attainment during a time of career and identity transition. Components were distilled utilizing a common components analysis approach (Morgan et al., 2018). Associations with finding employment up to 15 months after the military-to-civilian transition were explored. Veterans who engaged with employment programs were primarily accessing the following components: career planning, resume writing, and interviewing skills. However, only a few content components were significantly related to obtaining employment: interviewing (with mentor/coach), resume writing (online tools), translating military to civilian work (with mentor/coach), entrepreneurship (with mentor/coach), and virtual career fairs. Furthermore, not all processes or modes of instruction for content components were associated with success in the job market. Having a mentor/coach was one of the most effective delivery strategies. For example, veterans using programs delivered by a mentor/coach that translated military skills to civilian work were more likely to find a job at 6-9-months (84%) and 12-15-months (91%) post military separation. In addition, risks that predicted lower use of employment program components by veterans were identified such as junior enlisted rank, combat exposure, combat arms occupation, and physical health problems. With these findings, program developers, implementers, and funders can channel efforts towards the utilization of employment programs with effective components.

L'influence des composantes du programme d'emploi sur l'obtention d'un travail au cours d' une période de transition identitaire et professionnelle L'utilisation des programmes d'emploi a été étudiée parmi 1172 vétérans de l'armée américaine afin de déterminer quelles composantes du contenu et du processus influencent l'obtention d'un emploi. Une approche d'analyse des composantes communes (common component analysis, CCA) a été utilisée. Les associations avec l'obtention d'un emploi jusqu'à 15 mois après la transition de l'armée à la société civile ont identifié des composantes significativement liées à l'obtention d'un emploi: l'entretien (avec un mentor/coach), la rédaction d'un CV (outils en ligne), la transposition du travail militaire au travail civil (avec un mentor/coach), l'esprit entrepreneurial (avec un mentor/coach) et les salons de l'emploi virtuels. Le recours à un mentor/coach était l'une des stratégies de prestation les plus efficaces. Les risques prédisant une utilisation moindre des composantes du programme ont été identifiés: grade d'enrôlé junior, exposition au combat, occupation dans les armes de combat et problèmes de santé physique.

La influencia de los componentes del programa de empleo en la consecución del trabajo durante una época de transición de identidad y carrera Se estudió el uso del programa de empleo entre 1,172 veteranos militares de los Estados Unidos para determinar qué contenido y componentes del proceso influyen en la consecución del empleo. Se utilizó un enfoque de análisis de componentes comunes. Las asociaciones con la búsqueda de empleo hasta 15 meses después de la transición de militar a civil identificaron componentes relacionados significativamente con la obtención de empleo: entrevistas (con mentor / entrenador), redacción de currículos (herramientas en línea), traducción de trabajo militar a civil (con mentor / entrenador), emprendimiento (con mentor / coach) y ferias de carreras virtuales. Tener un mentor / entrenador fue una de las estrategias de ejecución más efectivas. Se identificaron los riesgos que predecían un menor uso de los componentes del programa: rango de alistados juveniles, exposición al combate, ocupación de armas de combate y problemas de salud física.

Maternal Socialization is Associated with Prosocial Behavior in At-Risk Young Children.

Prosocial behaviors are a key component of young children's developing social competence. The current study examines the impact of two types of maternal socialization on young children's prosocial behaviors: emotional expressiveness (defined as maternal displayed positive and negative affect) and direct coaching of prosocial responses and explores the relationship of these socialization behaviors with mothers' own histories of psychosocial risk. An ethnically and socioeconomically diverse sample from the United States of 80 mother-child dyads at high risk for violence exposure was assessed when the children were preschool age. All of the maternal emotion socialization behaviors were evaluated by direct observation. The sample included 40 mothers with a history of childhood trauma and 40 mothers without such a history, matched on demographic characteristics. Results indicated that mothers with a history of childhood trauma experiences expressed more positive affect than those without childhood trauma, but the groups did not differ in expressed negative affect or prosocial coaching behaviors. For the full sample, even after controlling for relevant demographic and psychosocial risk factors, socialization behaviors were associated with preschool children's prosocial behavior. Findings reinforce the critical role of parental socialization behaviors in the development of young children's peer-directed prosocial behaviors and highlight the importance of helping parents to develop effective socialization skills.

Neurophysiological patterns associated with blunted emotional face processing and withdrawal tendencies in young children exposed to intimate partner violence.

Studies linking child maltreatment to abnormal neurophysiological responses to emotional stimuli and mental health impairment have not specifically explored these patterns in young children exposed to intimate partner violence (IPV). The present study examined two neurophysiological indicators, resting-state electroencephalography and an emotion event-related potential (ERP) in 21 IPV exposed and 30 nonexposed children ages 4-6 years recruited from the community and domestic violence shelters. Frontal alpha asymmetry (FAA) was assessed while at rest. FAA is often associated with avoidant/withdrawn behavior and increased risk of IPV-related mental health conditions (e.g., depression). Additionally, the late positive potential (LPP) ERP component, reflecting motivated attention, was acquired in the context of an age-appropriate affective oddball paradigm with low probability animal pictures as targets and human facial expressions (angry, happy, neutral) as distracters. Results demonstrated that IPV-exposed children, compared with nonexposed children, exhibited lower left FAA during resting state and reduced LPPs to oddball targets and affective faces relative to neutral faces in the oddball task. Together, these results suggest neural patterns associated with a blunted response to emotional stimuli and withdrawal tendencies, respectively, in young children exposed to IPV. Implications for emotional socialization in this vulnerable population are discussed.

Maternal posttraumatic stress and FKBP5 Genotype interact to predict trauma-related symptoms in preschool-age offspring.

BACKGROUND: Children of parents with posttraumatic stress (PTS) face heightened risk for developing emotional and behavioral problems, regardless of whether they experience a traumatic event themselves. The current study investigates whether child FKBP5, a stress relevant gene shown to interact with child trauma exposure to increase risk for PTS, also moderates the well-established link between maternal PTS and child symptoms. METHODS: Data are derived from a longitudinal lab-based study for which 205 dyads of trauma-exposed mothers and their preschool-age children from a sample enriched for violence exposure provided DNA samples and completed measures of maternal and child trauma-related symptoms. Hypotheses tested whether child FKBP5 rs1360780 SNP genotype interacts with child trauma exposure and maternal PTS to predict child trauma-related symptoms. RESULTS: Hypotheses were partially supported, with maternal PTS predicting increased child symptoms for children carrying the minor T-allele (CT/TT), but not those homozygous for the major C-allele. LIMITATIONS: Study results may not generalize to lower-risk or non-clinical populations, did not assess between-group differences in race/ethnicity, and do not consider other genes that may interact with FKBP5 or contribute to genetic risk for trauma-related impairment. CONCLUSIONS: These findings provide the first evidence that the robust gene x environment interaction involving FKBP5 and child trauma exposure extends to other environmental perturbations, including maternal PTS. Our results highlight the importance of efforts to address trauma-related psychopathology in caregivers, which may disrupt intergenerational risk processes and improve outcomes for children.

Intimate Partner Violence Exposure and Childhood Psychopathology: Associations with Discriminating Fearful and Angry Faces in Young Children.

Purpose: Childhood exposure to traumatic violence may shape how children respond to threatening faces and increase risk for psychopathology. Maltreated children may exhibit altered processing of threatening faces; however, the effects of witnessing intimate partner violence (IPV) on children's discrimination of facial expressions is under-studied. Emotional face processing differentially relates to psychopathology, with some evidence suggesting improved detection of angry faces in children with fear-related anxiety symptoms, whereas externalizing symptoms are associated with poorer detection of fearful faces and perhaps emotional faces broadly. Method: In this cross-sectional study, we examined discrimination of threatening emotional faces (angry, fearful) in relation to experiences of probable abuse and witnessing of physical IPV, as well as psychopathology. Children (N = 137, mean age = 5.01 years, SD = 0.81) completed a "face in the crowd task" designed to examine discrimination of angry and fearful faces. Children either searched for an angry face among fearful distractor faces or a fearful face among angry distractors. Probable child abuse, witnessed IPV, and symptoms were assessed in semi-structured maternal interviews. Results: Children who witnessed violence showed poorer accuracy when fearful faces were the target; however, effects for probable abuse were non-significant. Greater fear-related anxiety symptoms were associated with poorer accuracy for fearful faces. Externalizing symptoms were associated with poorer overall accuracy. Conclusions: Findings suggest that IPV and fear-related anxiety symptoms were associated with difficulty detecting fearful faces when angry distractors were present, consistent with prior research. Implications of violence- and symptom-associated deficits in emotional face processing are discussed.

Responsive Parenting Buffers the Impact of Maternal PTSD on Young Children.

OBJECTIVE: This study investigates maternal responsive parenting behaviors as a theorized buffer to the detrimental impact of maternal PTSD symptoms on young children's depression and anxiety symptoms, disruptive behavior, and stress-related symptoms. DESIGN: A multi-ethnic sample of 242 trauma-exposed mothers and their preschool-aged children was assessed. Maternal responsive parenting behaviors were observed during standardized parent-child interactions. Maternal and child mental health symptoms were reported by mothers. RESULTS: Maternal PTSD symptoms were associated with their responsive parenting behaviors and predicted children's mental health symptoms. Responsive parenting was inversely associated with children's depression and stress-related symptoms. Moderation analyses revealed an interactive effect of maternal symptoms and responsive parenting on preschool children's disruptive behavior and stress-related symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Responsive parenting behaviors can mitigate the ill effects of maternal PTSD symptoms. Nurturing relationships buffer the impact of maternal PTSD. Helping parents' to sensitively respond to their young children's distress can support positive outcomes in children.

Adverse impact of multiple separations or loss of primary caregivers on young children.

Background: Young children may be adversely impacted by separation from and loss of caregivers and other loved ones. Such experiences often co-occur with interpersonal violence, unpredictability and other traumas. Whether separation/loss has unique effects independent of those other adversities is not known. Objective: This study aimed to establish whether separation/loss is associated with trauma-related symptoms, psychiatric disorders, and functional impairment in 18- to 48-month-old children independent of other adversities. Methods: Data from a cross-sectional community and clinical cohort were analyzed. Recruitment occurred in pediatric primary care, mental health, and developmental services sites. Children (33% female) were heterogeneous in ethnic background (55% minority) and family socioeconomic status (40% living in poverty). Results: Separation/loss was common (30.9% single type, 15.0% multiple types) and frequent amongst violence-exposed children (84.4% of violence-exposed children had experienced separation/loss from a loved one). However, violence exposure was uncommon amongst children with separation/loss experiences (only 23.9% were violence-exposed). Separation/loss was significantly associated with symptoms of posttraumatic stress and reactive attachment, as well as impairment and psychiatric disorders in models that controlled for sociodemographic and contextual risks, including other traumas. Psychiatric disorders were approximately 2.5 times more likely in children who had experienced multiple separations/losses, after accounting for interpersonal violence which was also significant. Conclusion: Professionals working with young children, policy-makers and caregivers should be aware that an accumulation of caregiver separations/losses, irrespective of violence and other traumatic exposure, may have detrimental effects on young children especially in the context of prior separations/losses or disruptions in their lives.

Antecedentes: los niños pequeños pueden verse afectados negativamente por la separación y la pérdida de los cuidadores y otros seres queridos. Tales experiencias a menudo se producen conjuntamente con la violencia interpersonal, la imprevisibilidad y otros traumas. Se desconoce si la separación/pérdida tiene efectos únicos independientes de esas otras adversidades.Objetivo: Este estudio tuvo como objetivo establecer si la separación/pérdida está asociada con síntomas relacionados con el trauma, trastornos psiquiátricos y deterioro funcional en niños de 18 a 48 meses de edad, independientemente de otras adversidades.Métodos: Se analizaron datos de una comunidad de corte transversal y una cohorte clínica. El reclutamiento se realizó en los centros de atención primaria pediátrica, salud mental y servicios de desarrollo. Los niños (33% mujeres) eran heterogéneos en cuanto a antecedentes étnicos (55% de minorías) y estatus socioeconómico familiar (40% que viven en la pobreza). Resultados: la separación/pérdida fue común (30.9% tipo único, 15.0% tipos múltiples) y frecuente entre los niños expuestos a la violencia ((84.4% de los niños expuestos a la violencia habían experimentado la separación/pérdida de un ser querido). Sin embargo, la exposición a la violencia fue poco frecuente entre los niños con experiencias de separación/pérdida (solo el 23,9% estaba expuesto a la violencia). La separación/pérdida se asoció significativamente con los síntomas de estrés postraumático y el apego reactivo, así como con el deterioro y los trastornos psiquiátricos en modelos que controlaban riesgos sociodemográficos y contextuales, incluidos otros traumas. Los trastornos psiquiátricos fueron aproximadamente 2.5 veces más probables en los niños que habían sufrido múltiples separaciones/pérdidas, después de considerar la violencia interpersonal, que también fue importante.Conclusión: Los profesionales que trabajan con niños pequeños, políticos y cuidadores deben ser conscientes de que una acumulación de separaciones/pérdidas de cuidadores, independientemente de la violencia y otras exposiciones traumáticas, puede tener efectos perjudiciales en los niños pequeños, especialmente en el contexto de separaciones/pérdidas previas o interrupciones en sus vidas.

Parsing dimensions of family violence exposure in early childhood: Shared and specific contributions to emergent psychopathology and impairment.

Early childhood exposure to family violence predicts increased risk for psychopathology. However, violence between partners and towards children often co-occur. This complicates efforts to determine how experiences of family violence contribute to early mental health problems. Utilizing mother-report data on harsh parenting and intimate partner violence (IPV) from two large community-based, socioeconomically and ethnically diverse samples of 3-5-year-old children, we illustrate the value of a bifactor method for characterizing a family climate in which verbal and physical violence are more chronic and pervasive among family members. In our Calibration sample (N = 1,179), we demonstrate the fit of a bifactor model with a shared violence factor reflecting violence among partners and towards children and orthogonal factors for physically harsh parenting and IPV. Examination of item distributions along quartiles on the identified factors reveals that violent behaviors are most frequent/chronic in families with high scores on the shared violence factor. Next, we apply this model in Validation (N = 1,316) and lab-visit samples (N = 369). Children's symptoms and impairment showed relatively strong and consistent associations with the shared factor. Some unique associations with IPV and harsh parenting were also observed. Overall, patterns suggest particularly negative impact when verbal and physical violence are more chronic and pervasive among family members. Finally, evidence supporting the bifactor model's validity relative to multi-method data from coded interviews about child abuse and IPV and observed parenting is presented. Findings illustrate the value of a bifactor approach for the meaningful characterization of shared and specific features of family violence.

Psychological and physical intimate partner violence and young children's mental health: The role of maternal posttraumatic stress symptoms and parenting behaviors.

Young children are at significant risk of exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV), and vulnerable to exposure-related psychopathology, yet few studies investigate the effects of exposure to IPV on children under the age of 5 years. The current study investigated the role of maternal PTSD symptoms and parenting strategies in the relationship between mothers' IPV experiences and psychopathology in their young children, ages 3-6 years in a community-based cohort of 308 mother-child dyads at high risk for family violence. Data were collected from 2011 to 2014. IPV history and maternal PTSD symptoms were assessed by self-report questionnaires. Children's symptoms were assessed with a developmentally-sensitive psychiatric interview administered to mothers. Punitive/restrictive parenting was independently-coded from in-depth interviews with mothers about their disciplinary practices. Hypothesized direct and indirect pathways between physical and psychological IPV, maternal PTSD, maternal parenting style, and children's internalizing and externalizing symptoms were examined with mediation models. Results indicated that neither physical nor psychological IPV experienced by mothers was directly associated with children's symptoms. However, both types of victimization were associated with maternal PTSD symptoms. Examination of indirect pathways suggested that maternal PTSD symptoms mediated the relationship between mothers' psychological and physical IPV experiences and children's internalizing and externalizing symptoms and mothers' restrictive/punitive parenting mediated the relationship between mothers' psychological IPV and children's externalizing symptoms. In addition, there was a path from maternal physical IPV to child externalizing symptoms through both maternal PTSD symptoms and restrictive/punitive parenting. Findings highlight the importance of supporting parents in recovering from the sequelae of their own traumatic experiences, as their ensuing mental health symptoms and parenting behaviors may have a significant impact on their children's emotional health.

A formative evaluation of a coach-based technical assistance model for youth- and family-focused programming.

BACKGROUND: The Children, Youth, and Families At-Risk (CYFAR) initiative provides funding and technical support for local community-based programs designed to promote positive outcomes among vulnerable populations. In 2013, CYFAR implemented significant changes in the way it provides technical assistance (TA) to grantees. These changes included introducing a new TA model in which trained coaches provide proactive support that is tailored to individual CYFAR projects. The purpose of this paper is to describe the evolution of this TA model and present preliminary findings from a formative evaluation. METHODS: CYFAR Principal Investigators (PIs) were invited to respond to online surveys in 2015 and 2016. The surveys were designed to assess PI attitudes towards the nature and quality of support that they receive from their coaches. RESULTS: CYFAR PIs reported that their coaches have incorporated a range of coaching skills and techniques into their work. PIs have generally positive attitudes towards their coaches, and these attitudes have become more positive over time. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that CYFAR PIs have been generally supportive of the new TA system. Factors that may have facilitated support include a strong emphasis on team-building and the provision of specific resources that support program design, implementation, and evaluation.

The Family Socialization Interview-Revised (FSI-R): a Comprehensive Assessment of Parental Disciplinary Behaviors.

Elucidating the complex mechanisms by which harsh parenting increases risk of child psychopathology is key to targeted prevention. This requires nuanced methods that capture the varied perceptions and experiences of diverse families. The Family Socialization Interview-Revised (FSI-R), adapted from an interview developed by Dodge et al. (Child Development, 65, 649-665, 1994), is a comprehensive, semi-structured interview for characterizing methods of parental discipline used with young children. The FSI-R coding system systematically rates parenting style, usual discipline techniques, and most intense physical and psychological discipline based on rater judgment across two eras: (1) birth to the previous year, and (2) the previous year to present. The current study examined the psychometric properties of the FSI-R in a diverse, high-risk community sample of 386 mothers and their children, ages 3 to 6 years. Interrater reliability was good to excellent for codes capturing physically and psychologically harsh parenting, and restrictive/punitive parenting styles. Findings supported the FSI-R's convergent and incremental validity. Importantly, the FSI-R demonstrated incremental utility, explaining unique variance in children's externalizing and internalizing symptoms beyond that explained by traditional surveys and observed parenting. The FSI-R appeared particularly promising for capturing risk associated with young children's depressive symptoms, as these were generally not significantly associated with other measures of harsh parenting. Overall, findings support the added value of the FSI-R within a multi-method assessment of disciplinary practices across early child development. Future implications for prevention are discussed.

Examining Patterns of Exposure to Family Violence in Preschool Children: A Latent Class Approach.

Young children can experience violence directly or indirectly in the home, with some children exposed to multiple forms of violence. These polyvictims often experience violence that is severe, chronic, and multifaceted. The current study used latent class analysis to identify and examine the pattern of profiles of exposure to family violence (i.e., violence directed towards the child and between caregivers) among a sample of 474 children ages 3-6 year who were drawn from the Multidimensional Assessment of Preschoolers Study (Wakschlag et al., 2014). The data yielded 3 classes: a polyvictimized class (n = 72; 15.2%) with high probability of exposure to all forms of violence, a harsh parenting class (n = 235; 49.5%), distinguished mainly by child-directed physical discipline in the absence of more severe forms of violence, and a low-exposure class (n = 167; 35.2%). Classes were differentiated by contextual factors, maternal characteristics, and mother-reported and observational indicators of parenting and child functioning with most effect sizes between medium and large. These findings add to emerging evidence linking polyvictimization to impaired caregiving and adverse psychological outcomes for children and offer important insight for prevention and intervention for this vulnerable population.

Attention bias in the developmental unfolding of post-traumatic stress symptoms in young children at risk.

BACKGROUND: Threat-related attention bias relates to anxiety and posttraumatic stress symptoms in adults and adolescents, but few longitudinal studies examine such associations in young children. This study examines prospective relations among attention bias, trauma exposure, and anxiety and trauma symptoms in a sample previously reported to manifest cross-sectional associations between attention bias and observed anxiety at preschool age. METHODS: Young children [mean (MN) = 5.0, ±0.7 years, n = 208] from a community-based sample completed the dot-probe task to assess their attention biases in response to angry faces. At baseline (T1) and at follow-up approximately 9 months later (T2), anxiety and trauma exposure (i.e. violent and noninterpersonal events) and symptoms were assessed by maternal report. RESULTS: Neither attention bias nor baseline or recent trauma exposure predicted later anxiety. In contrast, attention bias toward threat and recent trauma exposure significantly predicted later trauma symptoms. There was evidence of symptom specificity such that attention bias toward threat significantly predicted hyperarousal and dissociation, but not avoidance or re-experiencing symptoms. Finally, moderation analyses indicated that the relationship between attention bias and trauma symptoms may differ according to children's experiences of probable abuse. CONCLUSIONS: Attention profiles and trauma exposure may increase the risk that young children will develop trauma symptoms. Individual differences in these attentional patterns and children's exposure history may impact outcomes among high-risk children with potential implications for intervention.

Attention bias and anxiety in young children exposed to family violence.

BACKGROUND: Attention bias toward threat is associated with anxiety in older youth and adults and has been linked with violence exposure. Attention bias may moderate the relationship between violence exposure and anxiety in young children. Capitalizing on measurement advances, this study examines these relationships at a younger age than previously possible. METHODS: Young children (mean age 4.7, ±0.8) from a cross-sectional sample oversampled for violence exposure (N = 218) completed the dot-probe task to assess their attention biases. Observed fear/anxiety was characterized with a novel observational paradigm, the Anxiety Dimensional Observation Scale. Mother-reported symptoms were assessed with the Preschool Age Psychiatric Assessment and Trauma Symptom Checklist for Young Children. Violence exposure was characterized with dimensional scores reflecting probability of membership in two classes derived via latent class analysis from the Conflict Tactics Scales: Abuse and Harsh Parenting. RESULTS: Family violence predicted greater child anxiety and trauma symptoms. Attention bias moderated the relationship between violence and anxiety. CONCLUSIONS: Attention bias toward threat may strengthen the effects of family violence on the development of anxiety, with potentially cascading effects across childhood. Such associations maybe most readily detected when using observational measures of childhood anxiety.