Emotion-Driven Eating and Overeating Among Fourth Graders: The Roles of Body Image, Academic Achievement, and Peer and School Factors.

BACKGROUND: Eating patterns such as breakfast consumption and fruit and vegetable intake have been associated with academic achievement and cognitive function. METHOD: The purpose of this study was to learn more about psychological (emotion-driven eating) and behavioral (over-eating) eating patterns and motives, and the roles of body image, academic achievement (reading and math), and social supports (peer acceptance and school attachment), among 378 fourth-grade students (55% boys) from 14 classrooms across 6 schools within a large Midwestern urban area. RESULTS: Results were analyzed through a 2-group (male and female) path analysis. Boys' overeating (R2 = 9%) was not significantly predicted. Their emotional eating (R2 = 22.2%) was negatively, significantly predicted by peer acceptance and interaction of peer acceptance and school attachment. Girls' overeating (R2 = 13.6%) was negatively, significantly predicted by positive body image. Girls' emotional eating (R2 = 24.1%) was negatively significantly predicted by positive body image, math scores, and peer acceptance. CONCLUSIONS: Boys' and girls' eating patterns are differentially affected by their school experiences.

Effects of a Comprehensive School Health Program on Elementary Student Academic Achievement.

BACKGROUND: Improving the academic achievement of youth in the United States is an area of interest and a critical indicator of the future success of the youth. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of a comprehensive school physical activity and healthy eating program on 5th-grade students' academic achievement, specifically reading and math. METHODS: Overall, 628 (intervention: 377, 54% girls; comparison: 251, 49% girls) 5th-grade children participated across the 6 schools in a year-long comprehensive health intervention, completing curriculum-based academic achievement measures at 2 time-points. RESULTS: Results showed that even after controlling for class clustering, age, sex, race, and T1 reading and math variables, students' T2 reading and math achievement were significantly higher in the intervention group than the comparison group. CONCLUSIONS: Comprehensive health programming can enhance the health and academic achievement of youth.

Parental social support, perceived competence and enjoyment in school physical activity.

BACKGROUND: Beginning in the elementary school years, there are differences among children on how they perceive their competence in physical activity (PA). Children's competence perceptions may influence their affective reactions to PA. A crucial question is how to motivate children who hold low competence perceptions to enhance their enjoyment and PA involvement. Because parents play critical roles in children's development and socialization, social support from parents can be an important factor to complement teachers' effort to enhance children's enjoyment and PA involvement. In this research we identified the associations among children's beliefs about parental social support, perceived competence, and enjoyment in school PA. METHODS: Three hundred and twenty children (9-11 years old) participated in a two-wave study. At the first wave, children completed questionnaires measuring their beliefs about parental social support, perceived competence, and enjoyment in school PA; they reported their enjoyment again 8 months later at the second wave. RESULTS: Both concurrent and longitudinal analyses revealed that beliefs about parental social support were important factors associated with children's enjoyment in school PA, especially among girls with low competence perceptions. CONCLUSION: Family socialization factors should be taken into consideration. The efficacy of individual and community-level strategies should be included and evaluated when designing effective intervention strategies that enhance children's PA in school.

Building healthy communities: A comprehensive school health program to prevent obesity in elementary schools.

Obesity among children is highly prevalent and can lead to risk factors for chronic disease in adulthood. Key organizations have called on schools to play a larger role by increasing children's physical activity and nutrition by adopting an overall culture of health. This study examined the impact of a socioecological theory driven school-wide nutrition and physical activity intervention on 5th graders' central adiposity and obesity level. In 2015-2016, in the Midwest region of U.S., four treatment and two control schools, including 628 (377 treatment) 5th grade children participated in an eight-month intervention. Children in the treatment schools participated in a comprehensive healthy school transformation program consisting of six components. Waist-to-Height Ratio (WHtR) and Body Mass Index (BMI) was calculated and used as the measure of obesity. ANCOVA revealed a significant difference in WHtR among treatment and control groups at time two (T2) FMI(1,6148.14) = 4.43, p = .035, R2 = 0.64, R2Treament = 0.01, with no significant differences based on age, sex, and race. Additionally, the ANCOVA for BMI revealed a marginally significant lower BMI among the treatment than comparison group students FMI(1, 614) = 3.575, p = .059, R2 = 0.01 (Mdiff = -0.23, 95%CI upper boundary: -0.03). The healthy school intervention led to significant differences in obesity levels, regardless of age, sex, or race, across the 8-month program between 5th grade children in treatment and non-treatment schools. This supports the ability of schoolwide programs to significantly and positively impact student health and chronic disease prevention.

A Reciprocal Effects Model of Children's Body Fat Self-Concept: Relations With Physical Self-Concept and Physical Activity.

This study investigated a reciprocal effects model (REM) of children's body fat self-concept and physical self-concept, and objectively measured school physical activity at different intensities. Grade four students (N = 376; M age = 9.07, SD = .61; 55% boys) from the midwest region of the United States completed measures of physical self-concept and body fat self-concept, and wore accelerometers for three consecutive school days at the beginning and end of one school year. Findings from structural equation modeling analyses did not support reciprocal effects. However, children's body fat self-concept predicted future physical self-concept and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Multigroup analyses explored the moderating role of weight status, sex, ethnicity, and sex*ethnicity within the REM. Findings supported invariance, suggesting that the observed relations were generalizable for these children across demographic groups. Links between body fat self-concept and future physical self-concept and MVPA highlight self-enhancing effects that can promote children's health and well-being.

The relationship between teacher burnout and student motivation.

BACKGROUND: Teacher burnout is regarded as a serious problem in school settings. To date, studies on teachers' stress and burnout have largely centred on teachers' own characteristics, socialization, and behaviours, but few have explored the connection between teachers' burnout and students' motivation via their own perceptions of teachers' behaviour and emotional well-being. AIMS: This study adopted Maslach et al.'s (2001, Annu. Rev. Psychol., 52, 397) job burnout construct and self-determination theory to investigate the relationships between teachers' burnout and students' autonomous motivation over one-semester physical education classes. SAMPLE: A total of 1,302 high school students and their 33 physical education teachers in 20 high schools from two school districts in a major Midwest metropolitan area in the United States. The two school districts were demographically similar. METHODS: Students and physical education teachers completed questionnaires assessing relevant psychological constructs. There were two time points for collecting students' data. One was at the beginning of a fall semester, and the other was at the end of that semester. Hierarchical linear modelling analyses were conducted. RESULTS: It was revealed that teachers' emotional exhaustion was negatively related to students' perceived teacher autonomy support (TAS); in turn, there was a negative relationship between teachers' feeling of depersonalization and students' autonomous motivation development even when controlling for inadequate TAS. CONCLUSION: The dimensions of teachers' burnout might play different roles in the transmission from teachers to students. Teachers' status of burnout is an important environmental factor associated with students' quality of motivation.

Urban health educators' perspectives and practices regarding school nutrition education policies.

Although nutrition-related health education policies exist at national, state and local levels, the degree to which those policies affect the everyday practices of health education teachers who are charged with executing them in schools is often unclear. The purpose of this study was to examine the nutrition-related health education policy matrix that affected one urban school district, the health education teachers' awareness of those policies, the impact of nutrition policies on teachers' instruction and challenges teachers perceived in executing comprehensive nutrition education. The study used interpretive ethnography to examine the educational contexts and perspectives of 27 health educators from 24 middle schools in one urban district in the Midwestern United States. Data were collected through school observations, interviews with key personnel and document collection. We found that a network of nutrition-related education policies governed health education teachers' instruction, but that teachers were uniformly unaware of those policies. Without institutional coherence and clear directives, health education teachers taught little nutrition content, primarily due to poor training, professional development, instructional resources and administrative accountability. The results are discussed in light of the enormous challenges in many urban schools and the need for nutrition education professional development.

Using social cognitive theory to predict physical activity and fitness in underserved middle school children.

Few researchers have used social cognitive theory and environment-based constructs to predict physical activity (PA) and fitness in underserved middle-school children. Hence, we evaluated social cognitive variables and perceptions of the school environment to predict PA and fitness in middle school children (N = 506, ages 10-14 years). Using multiple regression analyses we accounted for 12% of the variance in PA and 13-21% of the variance in fitness. The best predictors of PA were barrier self-efficacy, classmate social support, and gender; whereas, only gender predicted fitness. The results affirmed the importance of barrier self-efficacy and gender differences. Our findings regarding classmate social support are some of the first to illuminate the importance of school-specific peers in promoting PA.

PE is not for me: when boys' masculinities are threatened.

This study used hegemonic masculinity theory to examine the intersection of masculinities and school physical education from the perspectives of boys who embodied masculinities that were marginalized. Over a 13-week period using present-focused, student-centered, qualitative methodological approaches, we observed, interviewed, and worked in small groups with 5 middle school boys from two schools. We identified three significant themes that merge the stories and experiences of masculinity hierarchies in sport-based physical education. First, we found that four social practices (content, pedagogies, teacher-student relationships, and peer cultures) in these physical education settings privileged some masculinities over others. Second, we examined the role that embodiment played, both in how the boys wore their oppression and in how their bodies resisted marginalizing situations. Third, we describe the contrasts these boys drew between physical activities experienced in sport-based physical education and physical activity experiences in other areas of their lives. We used Connell and Messerschmidt's (2005) reconceptualization of the theory of hegemonic masculinity for understanding how competitive sport-based physical education functioned to oppress boys with masculinities that were deemed abnormal. Additionally, we introduce feminist poststructuralism as a possible theoretical lens for interpreting boys' bodies as also being active agents in social practices rather than being only passive objects who are oppressed and dominated.

Culturally relevant physical education in urban schools: reflecting cultural knowledge.

Using a three-part theoretical framework, the cultural relevance cycle-which consists of (a) knowing community dynamics, (b) knowing how community dynamics influence educational processes, and (c) implementing strategies that reflect cultural knowledge of the community--we examined teachers' and students' perspectives on culturally relevant physical education in urban settings. We observed and interviewed 53 physical education teachers and 183 students in urban districts over 4 years. We identified themes of care, respect, language and communication, and curricular content that explained how these teachers enacted the cultural relevance cycle. Within these themes, teachers and students specified global and discipline-specific components of care, the rflattening of social hierarchies among students and between students and teachers, accommodation of English as a second language and urban communication, and relevant curricular content as necessary for achieving cultural relevance. Enacting the cycle of cultural relevance resulted in respectful learning environments in which students were highly engaged; however very few teachers enacted all three steps of the cycle.

Racial and socioeconomic disparities in nutrition behaviors: targeted interventions needed.

OBJECTIVE: To compare dietary knowledge, behaviors and self-efficacy of black middle school students of low socioeconomic status with their white counterparts of higher socioeconomic status. DESIGN: Cross-sectional, school-based survey. SETTING: Large metropolitan area in the United States. PARTICIPANTS: Middle school students (1,208 of low socioeconomic and 978 of higher socioeconomic status). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Dietary behaviors, dietary knowledge, and dietary self-efficacy were assessed by questionnaire. ANALYSIS: Differences between black students of low socioeconomic status and white students of higher socioeconomic status in the above variables. RESULTS: Black students of low socioeconomic status scored significantly lower than did white students of higher socioeconomic status on several of the variables. They were more likely to consume empty calorie food, meat, and fried food and less likely to eat fruit, vegetables, dairy products, and grains; they were less knowledgeable about dietary variables; and they had significantly lower self-efficacy regarding their ability to change dietary habits. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: The results of this study suggest that black students of low socioeconomic status should be targeted for early intervention related to dietary behaviors. This age group is amenable to change, and interventions designed specifically for them may result in lifetime reductions in risk of morbidity and mortality.

E-mentoring in physical education: promises and pitfalls.

Mentoring can be a critical component of teachers' professional development and retention, yet logistical and fiscal challenges often limit the amount of contact a protégé can have with a mentor teacher. This investigation explored a school district initiative to address this need for more mentor interaction by supplementing traditional face-to-face mentoring with electronic mentoring. Thirty elementary physical education teachers participated in a year-long program that involved workshops, school visits, videotaped lessons, and electronic mentoring via chat rooms. Data were collected from chat room postings and analyzed for frequency of response and quality. In addition, a series of interviews were analyzed via constant comparison process to further understand teachers' perceptions of electronic mentoring. In general, teacher postings were minimal in frequency and quality. The limited use of the chat rooms was likely linked to the teachers' perceptions of electronic mentoring, which included several concerns with the technical and human dimensions of the process.

Effects of teacher autonomy support and students' autonomous motivation on learning in physical education.

This study applied self-determination theory to investigate the effects of students' autonomous motivation and their perceptions of teacher autonomy support on need satisfaction adjustment, learning achievement, and cardiorespiratory fitness over a 4-month personal conditioning unit. Participants were 253 urban adolescents (121 girls and 132 boys, ages = 12-14 years). Based on a series of multiple regression analyses, perceived autonomy support by teachers significantly predicted students'need satisfaction adjustment and led to learning achievement, especially for students who were not autonomously motivated to learn in physical education. In turn, being more autonomous was directly associated with cardiorespiratory fitness enhancement. The findings suggest that shifts in teaching approaches toward providing more support for students' autonomy and active involvement hold promise for enhancing learning.

The influence of domain specificity on motivation in physical education.

With the assumption that domain specificity would significantly influence students' motivation, our study was designed to investigate between- and within-domain relations of task value, perceived autonomy and competence, and achievement goal orientations across physical education and mathematics. Urban adolescents (N = 273, ages 12-14 years) completed questionnaires assessing these motivational constructs in both subjects. Based on our confirmatory factor analyses and fit indexes, all motivational constructs demonstrated strong subject specificity. Strengths of associations between physical education and mathematics differed by individual motivational constructs. Within-domain interrelations of these constructs were not consistent across physical education and mathematics. Our findings suggest that domain specificity in physical education plays a significant role in students' motivation.

Using social cognitive theory to predict physical activity in inner-city African American school children.

Researchers using social cognitive theory and employing built environment constructs to predict physical activity (PA) in inner-city African American children is quite limited. Thus, the purpose of our investigation was to evaluate the ability of important social cognitive variables (e.g., self-efficacy) and built environment constructs (e.g., neighborhood hazards) to predict African American children's PA. Children (N = 331, ages 10-14) completed questionnaires assessing social cognitive theory constructs and PA. Using multiple regression analyses we were able to account for 19% of the variance in PA. Based on standardized beta weights, the best predictors of PA were time spent outside and social support derived from friends. These findings illuminate the valuable role of PA support from peers, as well as the simple act of going outside for inner-city African American children.

A pilot study to examine the effects of a nutrition intervention on nutrition knowledge, behaviors, and efficacy expectations in middle school children.

BACKGROUND: This was a pilot study to determine the impact of the Michigan Model (MM) Nutrition Curriculum on nutrition knowledge, efficacy expectations, and eating behaviors in middle school students. METHODS: The study was conducted in a large metropolitan setting and approved by the Institutional Review Board. The participants for this study were divided into an intervention group (n = 407) and a control group (n = 169). An MM instructor trained health teachers in the use of the curriculum, and the teacher subsequently taught the curriculum to students in the intervention group. A valid and reliable questionnaire was used to determine pre-post differences. It consisted of 3 subscales assessing eating habits, nutrition knowledge, and efficacy expectations toward healthy eating. Subscale scores were analyzed using a 2 groups (intervention vs control) x 2 times (pre vs post) analysis of variance. RESULTS: The intervention group increased their nutrition knowledge at post. There was also a significant main effect for groups in the subscales "Eating Behaviors" and "Efficacy Expectations Regarding Healthy Eating." Subsequent post hoc analysis revealed that the intervention group was significantly more likely to eat fruits and vegetables and less likely to eat junk food than the control group. Students in the intervention group also felt more confident that they could eat healthy. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this pilot study suggest that the MM Nutrition Curriculum delivered by trained professionals resulted in significant positive changes in both nutrition knowledge and behaviors in middle school children. Further research needs to be conducted to determine the long-term impact.

The influence of self-determination in physical education on leisure-time physical activity behavior.

Using a multitheory approach, this study was designed to investigate the influence of urban adolescents' perceived autonomy and competence in physical education on their physical activity intentions and behaviors during leisure time. A transcontextual model was hypothesized and tested. Urban adolescents (N=653, ages 11-15 years) completed questionnaires assessing relevant psychological constructs and moderate to vigorous physical activity and then had their cardiorespiratory fitness assessed with the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER) test. Based on our structural equation modeling analyses and fit indexes, the transcontextual model adequately fit the data. We concluded that the two theoretical frameworks--SDT and theory of planned behavior--can be integrated to provide an enhanced understanding of the influence of physical education on leisure-time physical activity. The results revealed that perceived autonomy and competence in physical education are interrelated and function as a whole for enhancing leisure-time physically active intentions and behavior.

The theory of planned behavior: predicting physical activity in Mexican American children.

Theoretically grounded research on the determinants of Mexican American children's physical activity and related psychosocial variables is scarce. Thus, the purpose of our investigation was to evaluate the ability of the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to predict Mexican American children's self-reported moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Children (N = 475, ages 9-12) completed questionnaires assessing the TPB constructs and MVPA. Multiple regression analyses provided moderate support for the ability of the TPB variables to predict MVPA as we accounted for between 8-9% of the variance in MVPA. Attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control accounted for 45% of the variance in intention. Descriptive results were encouraging because mean values indicated that most children had positive attitudes, moderately strong intentions, felt in control, and perceived support from significant others (i.e., physical education teachers) for their physical activity engagement.

Teachers' perspectives on the challenges of teaching physical education in urban schools: the student emotional filter.

The purpose of this study was to analyze how the challenges of urban schools influence physical education teachers' emotional understanding and connections with their students and the implications on their teaching. Sixty-one elementary physical educators from an urban school district in the midwestern U.S. were interviewed multiple times (N = 136) over 3 years using interpretive methodology. Teachers reported five unique challenges that significantly shaped their thinking about students and their careers, along with strategies they used to overcome or manage those challenges. The challenges were: (a) insufficient instructional resources, (b) implementing culturally relevant pedagogy, (c) dealing with community violence, (d) integrating more games in curricula, and (e) teaching in a culture of basketball. Implications centered on the guilt-inducing nature of urban teaching, developing an informed and realistic vision of urban physical education, and the role of teacher preparation and professional development.

Does "sneaky fox" facilitate learning? Examining the effects of seductive details in physical education.

While seductive details are enjoyable, they are unimportant content or activities intentionally inserted to make class fun and interesting. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of seductive details on students' learning of net games in physical education. Participants were 240 middle school students. A videotaped lesson example named "outfox your opponent" was used as the stimulus, and a 2 x 3 (condition x grade) factorial analysis was designed. The results showed that seductive details directly interrupted students' recall of important learning content and transferring problem solving in learning net games. It is suggested that the function of seductive details on learning should be reconsidered when designing effective motivational strategies in physical education.