Noradrenaline-induced changes in cerebral blood flow in health, traumatic brain injury and critical illness: a systematic review with meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Noradrenaline is a standard treatment for hypotension in acute care. The precise effects of noradrenaline on cerebral blood flow in health and disease remain unclear. METHODS: We systematically reviewed and synthesised data from studies examining changes in cerebral blood flow in healthy participants and patients with traumatic brain injury and critical illness. RESULTS: Twenty-eight eligible studies were included. In healthy subjects and patients without critical illness or traumatic brain injury, noradrenaline did not significantly change cerebral blood flow velocity (-1.7%, 95%CI -4.7-1.3%) despite a 24.1% (95%CI 19.4-28.7%) increase in mean arterial pressure. In patients with traumatic brain injury, noradrenaline significantly increased cerebral blood flow velocity (21.5%, 95%CI 11.0-32.0%), along with a 33.8% (95%CI 14.7-52.9%) increase in mean arterial pressure. In patients who were critically ill, noradrenaline significantly increased cerebral blood flow velocity (20.0%, 95%CI 9.7-30.3%), along with a 32.4% (95%CI 25.0-39.9%) increase in mean arterial pressure. Our analyses suggest intact cerebral autoregulation in healthy subjects and patients without critical illness or traumatic brain injury., and impaired cerebral autoregulation in patients with traumatic brain injury and who were critically ill. The extent of mean arterial pressure changes and the pre-treatment blood pressure levels may affect the magnitude of cerebral blood flow changes. Studies assessing cerebral blood flow using non-transcranial Doppler methods were inadequate and heterogeneous in enabling meaningful meta-analysis. CONCLUSIONS: Noradrenaline significantly increases cerebral blood flow in humans with impaired, not intact, cerebral autoregulation, with the extent of changes related to the severity of functional impairment, the extent of mean arterial pressure changes and pre-treatment blood pressure levels.

A prospective randomized study examining the impact of intravenous versus inhalational anesthesia on postoperative cognitive decline and delirium.

The present prospective randomized study was designed to investigate whether the development of Post Operative Cognitive Decline (POCD) is related to anesthesia type in older adults. All patients were screened for delirium and mental status, received baseline neuropsychological assessment, and evaluation of activities of daily living (ADLs). Follow-up assessments were performed at 3-6 months and 12-18 months. Patients were randomized to receive either inhalation anesthesia (ISO) with isoflurane or total intravenous anesthesia (TIVA) with propofol for maintenance anesthesia. ISO (n = 99) and TIVA (n = 100) groups were similar in demographics, preoperative cognition, and incidence of post-operative delirium. Groups did not differ in terms of mean change in memory or executive function from baseline to follow-up. Pre-surgical cognitive function is the only variable predictive of the development of POCD. Anesthetic type was not predictive of POCD. However, ADLs were predictive of post-operative delirium development. Overall, this pilot study represents a prospective, randomized study demonstrating that when examining ISO versus TIVA for maintenance of general anesthesia, there is no significant difference in cognition between anesthetic types. There is also no difference in the occurrence of postoperative delirium. Postoperative cognitive decline was best predicted by lower baseline cognition and functional status.

The effects of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage on cerebral vessel diameter and flow velocity.

BACKGROUND: Transcranial Doppler flow velocity is used to monitor for cerebral vasospasm following aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Generally, blood flow velocities appear inversely related to the square of vessel diameter representing local fluid dynamics. However, studies of flow velocity-diameter relationships are few, and may identify vessels for which diameter changes are better correlated with Doppler velocity. We therefore studied a large retrospective cohort with concurrent transcranial Doppler velocities and angiographic vessel diameters. METHODS: This is a single-site, retrospective, cohort study of adult patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage, approved by the UT Southwestern Medical Center Institutional Review Board. Study inclusion required transcranial Doppler measurements within 1.1, R2>0.9). Furthermore, velocity and diameter changed (P<0.033) consistent with the signature time course of cerebral vasospasm. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that middle cerebral artery velocity-diameter relationships are most influenced by local fluid dynamics, which supports these vessels as preferred endpoints in Doppler detection of cerebral vasospasm. Other vessels showed less influence of local fluid dynamics, pointing to greater role of factors outside the local vessel segment in determining flow velocity.

Comparison of Bispectral Index Monitor Data Between Standard Frontal-Temporal Position and Alternative Nasal Dorsum Position in the Intensive Care Unit: A Pilot Study.

ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: The Bispectral (BIS) monitor is a validated, noninvasive monitor placed over the forehead to titrate sedation in patients under general anesthesia in the operating room. In the neurocritical care unit, there is limited room on the forehead because of incisions, injuries, and other monitoring devices. This is a pilot study to determine whether a BIS nasal montage correlates to the standard frontal-temporal data in this patient population. METHODS: This prospective nonandomized pilot study enrolled 10 critically ill, intubated, and sedated adult patients admitted to the neurocritical care unit. Each patient had a BIS monitor placed over the standard frontal-temporal location and over the alternative nasal dorsum with simultaneous data collected for 24 hours. RESULTS: In the frontal-temporal location, the mean (SD) BIS score was 50.9 (15.0), average minimum BIS score was 47.0 (15.0), and average maximum BIS score was 58.4 (16.7). In the nasal dorsum location, the mean BIS score was 54.8 (21.6), average minimum BIS score was 52.8 (20.9), and average maximum BIS score was 58.0 (22.2). Baseline nonparametric tests showed nonsignificant P values for all variables except for Signal Quality Index. Generalized linear model analysis demonstrated significant differences between the 2 monitor locations (P < .0001). CONCLUSION: The results of this pilot study do not support using a BIS nasal montage as an alternative for patients in the neurocritical care unit.

Comparison of the effect of epidural versus intravenous patient controlled analgesia on inpatient and outpatient functional outcomes after adult degenerative scoliosis surgery: a comparative study.

BACKGROUND: Perioperative pain can negatively impact patient recovery after spine surgery and be a contributing factor to increased hospital length of stay and cost. Most data currently available is extrapolated from adolescent idiopathic cases and may not apply to adult and geriatric populations with thoracolumbar spine degeneration. PURPOSE: Study the impact of epidural analgesia on pain control and outcomes after adult degenerative scoliosis surgery in a large single-institution series of adult patients undergoing thoraco-lumbar-pelvic fusion. STUDY DESIGN/SETTING: Retrospective single-center review of prospectively collected data. PATIENT SAMPLE: Patients undergoing thoracolumbar fusion with pelvic fixation. OUTCOME MEASURES: Self-reported measures: Visual analog scale for pain. Physiologic Measures: Oral pain control requirements converted into daily morphine equivalents. Functional Measures: Ambulation perimeter after surgery, urinary retention and constipation rates. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed patient data for the years 2016 and 2017 before the use of patient controlled epidural analgesia (PCEA), and then 2018 and 2019 after its implementation, for all thoracolumbar degenerative procedures, and compared their postoperative outcomes measures. RESULTS: There were 46 patients in the PCEA group and 37 patients in the intravenous PCA (IVPCA) groups. All patients underwent long segment posterolateral thoracolumbar spinal fusion with pelvic fixation. Patients in the PCEA group had lower pain scores and ambulated greater distances compared with those in the IVPCA group. PCEA patients also had lower urinary retention and constipation rates, but no increased intraoperative or postoperative complications related to catheter placement. CONCLUSIONS: PCEA can provide optimal pain control after adult degenerative scoliosis spine surgery, and may promote greater early ambulation, while decreasing postoperative constipation and urinary retention rates.

Calcium Channel Blockers in Acute Care: The Links and Missing Links Between Hemodynamic Effects and Outcome Evidence.

Calcium channel blockers (CCBs) exert profound hemodynamic effects via blockage of calcium flux through voltage-gated calcium channels. CCBs are widely used in acute care to treat concerning, debilitating, or life-threatening hemodynamic changes in many patients. The overall literature suggests that, for systemic hemodynamics, although CCBs decrease blood pressure, they normally increase cardiac output; for regional hemodynamics, although they impair pressure autoregulation, they normally increase organ blood flow and tissue oxygenation. In acute care, CCBs exert therapeutic efficacy or improve outcomes in patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage, acute myocardial infarction and unstable angina, hypertensive crisis, perioperative hypertension, and atrial tachyarrhythmia. However, despite the clear links, there are missing links between the known hemodynamic effects and the reported outcome evidence, suggesting that further studies are needed for clarification. In this narrative review, we aim to discuss the hemodynamic effects and outcome evidence for CCBs, the links and missing links between these two domains, and the directions that merit future investigations.

Enhanced Recovery After Surgery Reduces Postoperative Opioid Use and 90-Day Readmission Rates After Open Thoracolumbar Fusion for Adult Degenerative Deformity.

BACKGROUND: The role of enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS) pathways implementation has not been previously explored in adult deformity patients. OBJECTIVE: To determine the impact of ERAS pathways implementation in adult patients undergoing open thoraco-lumbar-pelvic fusion for degenerative scoliosis on postoperative outcome, opioid consumption, and unplanned readmission rates. METHODS: In this retrospective single-center study, we included 124 consecutive patients who underwent open thoraco-lumbar-pelvic fusion from October 2016 to February 2019 for degenerative scoliosis. Primary outcomes consisted of postoperative supplementary opioid consumption in morphine equivalent dose (MED), postoperative complications, and readmission rates within the postoperative 90-d window. RESULTS: There were 67 patients in the ERAS group, and 57 patients served as pre-ERAS controls. Average patient age was 69 yr. The groups had comparable demographic and intraoperative variables. ERAS patients had a significantly lower rate of postoperative supplemental opioid consumption (248.05 vs 314.05 MED, P = .04), a lower rate of urinary retention requiring catheterization (5.97% vs 19.3%, P = .024) and of severe constipation (1.49% vs 31.57%, P < .0001), and fewer readmissions after their surgery (2.98% vs 28.07%, P = .0001). CONCLUSION: A comprehensive multidisciplinary approach to complex spine surgery can reduce opioid intake, postoperative urinary retention and severe constipation, and unplanned 90-d readmissions in the elderly adult population.

Intravenous vs oral acetaminophen in sinus surgery: A randomized clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: Multimodal perioperative analgesia including acetaminophen is recommended by current guidelines. The comparative efficacy of intravenous vs oral acetaminophen in sinus surgery is unknown. We aimed to determine whether intravenous or oral acetaminophen results in superior postoperative analgesia following sinus surgery. METHODS: This was a prospective randomized trial with blinded endpoint assessments conducted at a single large academic medical center. Subjects undergoing functional endoscopic sinus surgery were randomized to intravenous vs oral acetaminophen in addition to standard anesthetic and surgical care. The primary outcome was visual analogue scale pain score at 1 hour postoperatively. RESULTS: One hundred and ten adult patients were randomized; 9 were excluded from the data analysis. Fifty patients were assigned to intravenous acetaminophen and 51 to oral acetaminophen. Postoperative pain scores at 1 hour (primary endpoint) were not significantly different between the intravenous and oral acetaminophen groups. Similarly, there was no significant difference in pain scores at 24 hours postoperatively. Finally, there was no significant difference in postoperative opioid usage in the postanesthesia care unit or over the first 24 hours postoperatively. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first comparative efficacy trial of oral vs intravenous acetaminophen in sinus surgery. There was no significant difference in pain scores at 1 or 24 hours postoperatively, and no difference in postoperative opioid use. Intravenous acetaminophen offers no apparent advantage over oral acetaminophen in patients undergoing sinus surgery. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 1b.

Temporary Transvenous Diaphragmatic Neurostimulation in Prolonged Mechanically Ventilated Patients: A Feasibility Trial (RESCUE 1).

Prolonged mechanical ventilation promotes diaphragmatic atrophy and weaning difficulty. The study uses a novel device containing a transvenous phrenic nerve stimulating catheter (Lungpacer IntraVenous Electrode Catheter) to stimulate the diaphragm in ventilated patients. We set out to determine the feasibility of temporary transvenous diaphragmatic neurostimulation using this device. DESIGN: Multicenter, prospective open-label single group feasibility study. SETTING: ICUs of tertiary care hospitals. PATIENTS: Adults on mechanical ventilation for greater than or equal to 7 days that had failed two weaning trials. INTERVENTIONS: Stimulation catheter insertion and transvenous diaphragmatic neurostimulation therapy up to tid, along with standard of care. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Primary outcomes were successful insertion and removal of the catheter and safe application of transvenous diaphragmatic neurostimulation. Change in maximal inspiratory pressure and rapid shallow breathing index were also evaluated. Eleven patients met all entry criteria with a mean mechanical ventilation duration of 19.7 days; nine underwent successful catheter insertion. All nine had successful mapping of one or both phrenic nerves, demonstrated diaphragmatic contractions during therapy, and underwent successful catheter removal. Seven of nine met successful weaning criteria. Mean maximal inspiratory pressure increased by 105% in those successfully weaned (mean change 19.7 ± 17.9 cm H2O; p = 0.03), while mean rapid shallow breathing index improved by 44% (mean change -63.5 ± 64.4; p = 0.04). CONCLUSIONS: The transvenous diaphragmatic neurostimulation system is a feasible and safe therapy to stimulate the phrenic nerves and induce diaphragmatic contractions. Randomized clinical trials are underway to compare it to standard-of-care therapy for mechanical ventilation weaning.

American Society for Enhanced Recovery and Perioperative Quality Initiative Joint Consensus Statement on Postoperative Delirium Prevention.

Postoperative delirium is a geriatric syndrome that manifests as changes in cognition, attention, and levels of consciousness after surgery. It occurs in up to 50% of patients after major surgery and is associated with adverse outcomes, including increased hospital length of stay, higher cost of care, higher rates of institutionalization after discharge, and higher rates of readmission. Furthermore, it is associated with functional decline and cognitive impairments after surgery. As the age and medical complexity of our surgical population increases, practitioners need the skills to identify and prevent delirium in this high-risk population. Because delirium is a common and consequential postoperative complication, there has been an abundance of recent research focused on delirium, conducted by clinicians from a variety of specialties. There have also been several reviews and recommendation statements; however, these have not been based on robust evidence. The Sixth Perioperative Quality Initiative (POQI-6) consensus conference brought together a team of multidisciplinary experts to formally survey and evaluate the literature on postoperative delirium prevention and provide evidence-based recommendations using an iterative Delphi process and Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) Criteria for evaluating biomedical literature.

The effectiveness of tranexamic acid on operative and perioperative blood loss in long-segment spinal fusions: a consecutive series of 119 primary procedures.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to determine if the use of tranexamic acid (TXA) in long-segment spinal fusion surgery can help reduce perioperative blood loss, transfusion requirements, and morbidity. METHODS: In this retrospective single-center study, the authors included 119 consecutive patients who underwent thoracolumbar fusion spanning at least 4 spinal levels from October 2016 to February 2019. Blood loss, transfusion requirements, perioperative morbidity, and adverse thrombotic events were compared between a cohort receiving intravenous TXA and a control group that did not. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in any measure of intraoperative blood loss (1514.3 vs 1209.1 mL, p = 0.29) or transfusion requirement volume between the TXA and control groups despite a higher number of pelvic fusion procedures in the TXA group (85.9% vs 62.5%, p = 0.003). Postoperative transfusion volume was significantly lower in TXA patients (954 vs 572 mL, p = 0.01). There was no difference in the incidence of thrombotic complications between the groups. CONCLUSIONS: TXA appears to provide a protective effect against blood loss in long-segment spine fusion surgery specifically when pelvic dissection and fixation is performed. TXA also seems to decrease postoperative transfusion requirements without increasing the risk of adverse thrombotic events.

Cervical Spine Movement in a Cadaveric Model of Severe Spinal Instability: A Study Comparing Tracheal Intubation with 4 Different Laryngoscopes.

BACKGROUND: This study compared the Macintosh blade direct laryngoscope, Glidescope, C-Mac d-Blade, and McGrath MAC X-blade video laryngoscopes in 2 cadaveric models with severe cervical spinal instability. We hypothesized that the Glidescope video laryngoscope would allow for intubation with the least amount of cervical spine movement. Our secondary endpoints were glottic visualization and intubation success. METHODS: In total, 2 fresh cadavers underwent maximal surgical destabilization from the craniocervical junction to the cervicothoracic junction by a neurosurgical spine specialist, with subsequent neutral positioning of the heads with surgical head fixation devices. On each cadaver, 8 experienced anesthesiologists performed four intubations with the 4 laryngoscopes in random order. Lateral radiographic measurements determined vertebral displacement during intubation. RESULTS: Cervical spine displacements were not significantly different amongst video laryngoscopes. Cormack-Lehane Grade 1 views were achieved with all attempts with each of the 3 video laryngoscopes; intubation attempts with the Macintosh blade achieved only grade 3 or grade 4 views. Intubation was successful every time with a video laryngoscope but only during 1 of 16 intubation attempts with the Macintosh blade. CONCLUSIONS: In a cadaveric model with maximally destabilized cervical spines, cervical spine movement was observed during attempted laryngoscopy using each of 3 video laryngoscopes, although there was no significant difference between the laryngoscopes. Given cervical spine displacement occurred, these video laryngoscopes do not prevent cervical spine motion during laryngoscopy. However, with improved glottic visualization and intubation success, video laryngoscopes are superior to the Macintosh blade in both cervical spine safety and intubation efficacy in the model studied.

Multimodal analgesia for craniotomy.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: To explore the data for and against the use of the various components of multimodal analgesia in cranial neurosurgery. RECENT FINDINGS: Postcraniotomy pain is a challenging clinical problem in that analgesia must be accomplished without affecting neurologic function (i.e. 'losing the neurologic exam'). The traditional approach with low-dose opioids is often insufficient and can cause well recognized side effects. Newer multimodal analgesic approaches have proven beneficial in a variety of other surgical patient populations. The combined use of multiple nonopioid analgesics offers the promise of improved pain control and reduced opioid administration, while preserving the clinical neurologic exam. Specifically, acetaminophen and gabapentinoids should be considered for craniotomy patients, both preoperatively and postoperatively. The gabapentinoids have the added benefit of reduced nausea. Scalp blocks have moderate quality evidence supporting their use over incisional infiltration alone, with analgesia that extends into the postoperative period. Intraoperative dexmedetomidine reduces postoperative opioid requirements with the added benefit of reduced postcraniotomy hypertension. Methocarbamol, NSAIDs [both nonspecific cyclooxygenase (COX) 1 and 2 inhibitors and specific COX-2 inhibitors], ketamine, and intravenous lidocaine require further data regarding safety and efficacy in craniotomy patients. SUMMARY: Opioids are the mainstay for treating acute postcraniotomy pain but should be minimized. The evidence to support a multimodal approach is growing; neuroanesthesiologists and neurosurgeons should seek to incorporate multimodal analgesia into the perioperative care of craniotomy patients. Preoperative and postoperative gabapentin and acetaminophen, intraoperative dexmedetomidine, and scalp blocks over incisional infiltration have the most data for benefit, with good safety profiles. Further research is needed to define the safety, efficacy, and dosing parameters for NSAIDs including COX-2 inhibitors, methocarbamol, ketamine, and intravenous lidocaine in cranial neurosurgery.

Contemporary Management of Increased Intraoperative Intracranial Pressure: Evidence-Based Anesthetic and Surgical Review.

Increased intracranial pressure (ICP) is frequently encountered in the neurosurgical setting. A multitude of tactics exists to reduce ICP, ranging from patient position and medications to cerebrospinal fluid diversion and surgical decompression. A vast amount of literature has been published regarding ICP management in the critical care setting, but studies specifically tailored toward the management of intraoperative acute increases in ICP or brain bulk are lacking. Compartmentalizing the intracranial space into blood, brain tissue, and cerebrospinal fluid and understanding the numerous techniques available to affect these individual compartments can guide the surgical team to quickly identify increased brain bulk and respond appropriately. Rapidly instituting measures for brain relaxation in the operating room is essential in optimizing patient outcomes. Knowledge of the efficacy, rapidity, feasibility, and risks of the various available interventions can aid the team to properly tailor their approach to each individual patient. In this article, we present the first evidence-based review of intraoperative management of ICP and brain bulk.

Anaesthesia for stroke thrombectomy: technical considerations based on outcome evidence.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Stroke is the second leading cause of death and the third leading cause of disability worldwide. Treatment is time limited and delays cost lives. This review discusses modern stroke management, during a time when treatments and guidelines are rapidly evolving. RECENT FINDINGS: Stroke thrombectomy has become the therapy of choice for large vessel occlusion (LVO) strokes. Perfusion imaging techniques, both computed tomography (CT) and MRI, now allow treatment beyond a set time window in specific patients. Both general anaesthesia and conscious sedation are options for patients undergoing stroke thrombectomy. SUMMARY: An individualized approach to the patient's anaesthetic management is optimal, and depends on close communication with the neurointerventionalist regarding patient and procedure-specific variables. No specific anaesthetic agent is preferred. Guiding principles are minimization of time delay, and maintenance of cerebral perfusion pressure.

Mannitol in Critical Care and Surgery Over 50+ Years: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials and Complications With Meta-Analysis.

OBJECTIVE: Despite clinical use spanning 50+ years, questions remain concerning the optimal use of mannitol. The published reviews with meta-analysis frequently focused on mannitol's effects on a specific physiological aspect such as intracranial pressure (ICP) in sometimes heterogeneous patient populations. A comprehensive review of mannitol's effects, as well as side effects, is needed. METHODS: The databases Medline (OvidSP), Embase (OvidSP), and NLM PubMed were systematically searched for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) comparing mannitol to a control therapy in either the critical care or perioperative setting. Meta-analysis was performed when feasible to examine mannitol's effects on outcomes, including ICP, cerebral perfusion pressure, mean arterial pressure (MAP), brain relaxation, fluid intake, urine output, and serum sodium. Systematic literature search was also performed to understand mannitol-related complications. RESULTS: In total 55 RCTs were identified and 7 meta-analyses were performed. In traumatic brain injury, mannitol did not lead to significantly different MAP (SMD [95% confidence interval (CI)] =-3.3 [-7.9, 1.3] mm Hg; P=0.16) but caused significantly different serum sodium concentrations (SMD [95% CI]=-8.0 [-11.0, -4.9] mmol/L; P<0.00001) compared with hypertonic saline. In elective craniotomy, mannitol was less likely to lead to satisfactory brain relaxation (RR [95% CI]=0.89 [0.81, 0.98]; P=0.02), but was associated with increased fluid intake (SMD [95% CI]=0.67 [0.21, 1.13] L; P=0.004), increased urine output (SMD [95% CI]=485 [211, 759] mL; P=0.0005), decreased serum sodium concentration (SMD [95% CI]=-6.2 [-9.6, -2.9] mmol/L; P=0.0002), and a slightly higher MAP (SMD [95% CI]=3.3 [0.08, 6.5] mm Hg; P=0.04) compared with hypertonic saline. Mannitol could lead to complications in different organ systems, most often including hyponatremia, hyperkalemia, and acute kidney injury. These complications appeared dose dependent and had no long-term consequences. CONCLUSIONS: Mannitol is effective in accomplishing short-term clinical goals, although hypertonic saline is associated with improved brain relaxation during craniotomy. Mannitol has a favorable safety profile although it can cause electrolyte abnormality and renal impairment. More research is needed to determine its impacts on long-term outcomes.

Heterogeneity and Variability in Pressure Autoregulation of Organ Blood Flow: Lessons Learned Over 100+ Years.

OBJECTIVES: Pressure autoregulation is an organ's intrinsic ability to maintain blood flow despite changes in perfusion pressure. The purpose of this review is to discuss autoregulation's heterogeneity among different organs and variability under different conditions, a very clinically relevant topic. DATA SOURCES: Systematic search of Ovid MEDLINE; nonsystematic search of PubMed, Google Scholar, and reference lists. STUDY SELECTION: Animal or human studies investigating the potency or variation of pressure autoregulation of any organs or the association between autoregulation and outcomes. DATA EXTRACTION: Two authors screened the identified studies independently then collectively agreed upon articles to be used as the basis for this review. DATA SYNTHESIS: Study details, including subjects, organ investigated, methods of blood pressure intervention and blood flow measurement, and values of the lower limit, upper limit, and plateau were examined. Comparative canine studies were used to demonstrate the heterogeneity of pressure autoregulation among different organs and validate the proposed scale for organ categorization by autoregulatory capacity. Autoregulatory variability is discussed per organ. The association between cerebral autoregulation and outcome is summarized. CONCLUSIONS: The organs with robust autoregulation are the brain, spinal cord, heart, and kidney. Skeletal muscle has moderate autoregulation. Nearly all splanchnic organs including the stomach, small intestine, colon, liver, and pancreas possess weak autoregulation. Autoregulation can be readily affected by a variety of clinically relevant factors. Organs with weak or weakened autoregulation are at a greater risk of suboptimal perfusion when blood pressure fluctuates. Cerebral autoregulation and outcomes are closely related. These lessons learned over 100+ years are instructive in clinical care.

Education Research: Variation in priorities for neurocritical care education expressed across role groups.

OBJECTIVE: To define expectations for neurocritical care (NCC) core competencies vs competencies considered within the domain of other subspecialists. METHODS: An electronic survey was disseminated nationally to NCC nurses, physicians, fellows, and neurology residents through Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education neurology residency program directors, United Council for Neurologic Subspecialties neurocritical care fellowship program directors, and members of the Neurocritical Care Society. RESULTS: A total of 268 neurocritical care providers and neurology residents from 30 institutions responded. Overall, >90% supported NCC graduates independently interpreting and managing systemic and cerebral hemodynamic data, or performing brain death determination, neurovascular ultrasound, vascular access, and airway management. Over 75% endorsed that NCC graduates should independently interpret EEG and perform bronchoscopies. Fewer but substantial respondents supported graduates being independent performing intracranial bolt (45.8%), ventriculostomy (39.0%), tracheostomy (39.8%), or gastrostomy (19.1%) procedures. Trainees differed from physicians and program directors, respectively, by advocating independence in EEG interpretation (92.8%, 61.8%, and 65.3%) and PEG placement (29.3%, 9.1%, and 8.5%). CONCLUSIONS: Broad support exists across NCC role groups for wide-ranging NCC competencies including skills often performed by other neurology and non-neurology subspecialties. Variations highlight natural divergences in expectations among trainee, physician, and nurse role groups. These results establish expectations for core competencies within NCC and initiate dialogue across subspecialties about best practice standards for the spectrum of critically ill patients requiring neurologic care.