Human health screening level risk assessments of tertiary-butyl acetate (TBAC): calculated acute and chronic reference concentration (RfC) and Hazard Quotient (HQ) values based on toxicity and exposure scenario evaluations.

A screening level risk assessment has been performed for tertiary-butyl acetate (TBAC) examining its primary uses as a solvent in industrial and consumer products. Hazard quotients (HQ) were developed by merging TBAC animal toxicity and dose-response data with population-level, occupational and consumer exposure scenarios. TBAC has a low order of toxicity following subchronic inhalation exposure, and neurobehavioral changes (hyperactivity) in mice observed immediately after termination of exposure were used as conservative endpoints for derivation of acute and chronic reference concentration (RfC) values. TBAC is not genotoxic but has not been tested for carcinogenicity. However, TBAC is unlikely to be a human carcinogen in that its non-genotoxic metabolic surrogates tertiary-butanol (TBA) and methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) produce only male rat α-2u-globulin-mediated kidney cancer and high-dose specific mouse thyroid tumors, both of which have little qualitative or quantitative relevance to humans. Benchmark dose (BMD)-modeling of the neurobehavioral responses yielded acute and chronic RfC values of 1.5 ppm and 0.3 ppm, respectively. After conservative modeling of general population and near-source occupational and consumer product exposure scenarios, almost all HQs were substantially less than 1. HQs exceeding 1 were limited to consumer use of automotive products and paints in a poorly ventilated garage-sized room (HQ = 313) and occupational exposures in small and large brake shops using no personal protective equipment or ventilation controls (HQs = 3.4-126.6). The screening level risk assessments confirm low human health concerns with most uses of TBAC and indicate that further data-informed refinements can address problematic health/exposure scenarios. The assessments also illustrate how tier-based risk assessments using read-across toxicity information to metabolic surrogates reduce the need for comprehensive animal testing.

Consideration of rat chronic progressive nephropathy in regulatory evaluations for carcinogenicity.

Chronic progressive nephropathy (CPN) is a spontaneous renal disease of rats which can be a serious confounder in toxicology studies. It is a progressive disease with known physiological factors that modify disease progression, such as high dietary protein. The weight of evidence supports an absence of a renal counterpart in humans. There is extensive evidence that advanced CPN, particularly end-stage kidney, is a risk factor for development of a background incidence of atypical tubule hyperplasia and renal tubule tumors (RTT). The likely cause underlying this association with tubule neoplasia is the long-term increased tubule cell proliferation that occurs throughout CPN progression. As a variety of chemicals are able to exacerbate CPN, there is a potential for those exacerbating the severity up to and including end-stage kidney to cause a marginal increase in RTT and their precursor lesions. Extensive statistical analysis of National Toxicology Program studies shows a strong correlation between high-grade CPN, especially end-stage CPN, and renal tumor development. CPN as a mode of action (MOA) for rat RTT has received attention from regulatory authorities only recently. In the absence of toxic effects elsewhere, this does not constitute a carcinogenic effect of the chemical but can be addressed through a proposed MOA approach for regulatory purposes to reach a decision that RTT, developing as a result of CPN exacerbation in rats, have no relevance for human risk assessment. Guidelines are proposed for evaluation of exacerbation of CPN and RTT as a valid MOA for a given chemical.

Methyl tertiary-butyl ether mode of action for cancer endpoints in rodents.

There are no reports of studies that evaluate if methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE) exposure causes cancer in humans. This evaluation of MTBE carcinogenicity is based on the results of animal studies. A weak tumorigenic response was reported for both MTBE and TBA in one tumor type (kidney) in male rats, for MTBE in one other tumor type (testicular) in male rats, for MTBE in one tumor type (liver) in female mice, and for TBA in one tumor type (thyroid) in female mice. The weight of the evidence does not support a genotoxic mode of action (MOA). Non-genotoxic MOAs have been demonstrated or suggested that correspond to the weak tumorigenic responses. These MOAs either do not occur in humans or humans are much less susceptible to these effects. It is, therefore, unlikely that humans would be exposed to sufficient levels of MTBE to cause these tumorigenic responses.

4-Aminobiphenyl and DNA reactivity: case study within the context of the 2006 IPCS Human Relevance Framework for Analysis of a cancer mode of action for humans.

The IPCS Human Relevance Framework was evaluated for a DNA-reactive (genotoxic) carcinogen, 4-aminobiphenyl, based on a wealth of data in animals and humans. The mode of action involves metabolic activation by N-hydroxylation, followed by N-esterification leading to the formation of a reactive electrophile, which binds covalently to DNA, principally to deoxyguanosine, leading to an increased rate of DNA mutations and ultimately to the development of cancer. In humans and dogs, the urinary bladder urothelium is the target organ, whereas in mice it is the bladder and liver; in other species, other tissues can be involved. Differences in organ specificity are thought to be due to differences in metabolic activation versus inactivation. Based on qualitative and quantitative considerations, the mode of action is possible in humans. Other biological processes, such as toxicity and regenerative proliferation, can significantly influence the dose response of 4-aminobiphenyl-induced tumors. Based on the IPCS Human Relevance Framework, 4-aminobiphenyl would be predicted to be a carcinogen in humans, and this is corroborated by extensive epidemiologic evidence. The IPCA Human Relevance Framework is useful in evaluating DNA-reactive carcinogens.