Rhythmic auditory stimulation for reduction of falls in Parkinson's disease: a randomized controlled study.

OBJECTIVE:: To test whether rhythmic auditory stimulation (RAS) training reduces the number of falls in Parkinson's disease patients with a history of frequent falls. DESIGN:: Randomized withdrawal study design. SUBJECTS:: A total of 60 participants (aged 62-82 years) diagnosed with idiopathic Parkinson's disease (Hoehn and Yahr stages III or IV) with at least two falls in the past 12 months. INTERVENTION:: Participants were randomly allocated to two groups and completed 30 minutes of daily home-based gait training with metronome click-embedded music. The experimental group completed 24 weeks of RAS training, whereas the control group discontinued RAS training between weeks 8 and 16. MAIN MEASURES:: Changes in clinical and kinematic parameters were assessed at baseline, weeks 8, 16, and 24. RESULTS:: Both groups improved significantly at week 8. At week 16-after the control group had discontinued training-significant differences between groups emerged including a rise in the fall index for the control group ( M = 10, SD = 6). Resumption of training reduced the number of falls so that group differences were no longer significant at week 24 ( Mexperimental = 3, SD = 2.6; Mcontrol = 5, SD = 4.4; P > 0.05). Bilateral ankle dorsiflexion was significantly correlated with changes in gait, fear of falling, and the fall index, indicating ankle flexion as a potential kinematic mechanism RAS addresses to reduce falls. CONCLUSION:: RAS training significantly reduced the number of falls in Parkinson's disease and modified key gait parameters, such as velocity and stride length.

Music mnemonics aid Verbal Memory and Induce Learning - Related Brain Plasticity in Multiple Sclerosis.

Recent research on music and brain function has suggested that the temporal pattern structure in music and rhythm can enhance cognitive functions. To further elucidate this question specifically for memory, we investigated if a musical template can enhance verbal learning in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) and if music-assisted learning will also influence short-term, system-level brain plasticity. We measured systems-level brain activity with oscillatory network synchronization during music-assisted learning. Specifically, we measured the spectral power of 128-channel electroencephalogram (EEG) in alpha and beta frequency bands in 54 patients with MS. The study sample was randomly divided into two groups, either hearing a spoken or a musical (sung) presentation of Rey's auditory verbal learning test. We defined the "learning-related synchronization" (LRS) as the percent change in EEG spectral power from the first time the word was presented to the average of the subsequent word encoding trials. LRS differed significantly between the music and the spoken conditions in low alpha and upper beta bands. Patients in the music condition showed overall better word memory and better word order memory and stronger bilateral frontal alpha LRS than patients in the spoken condition. The evidence suggests that a musical mnemonic recruits stronger oscillatory network synchronization in prefrontal areas in MS patients during word learning. It is suggested that the temporal structure implicit in musical stimuli enhances "deep encoding" during verbal learning and sharpens the timing of neural dynamics in brain networks degraded by demyelination in MS.

Neurobiological foundations of neurologic music therapy: rhythmic entrainment and the motor system.

Entrainment is defined by a temporal locking process in which one system's motion or signal frequency entrains the frequency of another system. This process is a universal phenomenon that can be observed in physical (e.g., pendulum clocks) and biological systems (e.g., fire flies). However, entrainment can also be observed between human sensory and motor systems. The function of rhythmic entrainment in rehabilitative training and learning was established for the first time by Thaut and colleagues in several research studies in the early 1990s. It was shown that the inherent periodicity of auditory rhythmic patterns could entrain movement patterns in patients with movement disorders (see for a review: Thaut et al., 1999). Physiological, kinematic, and behavioral movement analysis showed very quickly that entrainment cues not only changed the timing of movement but also improved spatial and force parameters. Mathematical models have shown that anticipatory rhythmic templates as critical time constraints can result in the complete specification of the dynamics of a movement over the entire movement cycle, thereby optimizing motor planning and execution. Furthermore, temporal rhythmic entrainment has been successfully extended into applications in cognitive rehabilitation and speech and language rehabilitation, and thus become one of the major neurological mechanisms linking music and rhythm to brain rehabilitation. These findings provided a scientific basis for the development of neurologic music therapy.

Distinct cortico-cerebellar activations in rhythmic auditory motor synchronization.

We investigated the role of the cerebellum in differential aspects of temporal control of rhythmic auditory motor synchronization using positron emission tomography (PET). Subjects tapped with their right index finger to metronome tones at a mean frequency of .8 Hz during 5 conditions: (1) an isochronous rhythm condition, (2) random changes in interval durations, and while the duration of rhythmic intervals was continuously time-modulated following a cosine-wave function at (3) 3%, (4) 7%, and (5) 20% of base interval. Anterior lobe cerebellar neuronal populations showed similar motor-associated activity across all conditions regardless of rhythmic time structure in vermal and hemispheric parts ipsilateral to the movements. Neuronal populations in bilateral anterior posterior lobe, especially in the simple lobule, increased their activity stepwise with each increase in tempo modulation from a steady beat. Neuronal populations in other parts of the posterior lobe showed an increase of activity only during the 20% condition, which involved conscious monitoring of rhythmic pattern synchronization, especially on the left side contralateral to the movements. Differential cerebellar activation patterns correspond to those in contralateral primary (primary sensorimotor), ipsilateral secondary (inferior parietal close to the intraparietal sulcus) and bilateral tertiary (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) sensorimotor areas of the cerebral cortex, suggesting that distinct functional cortico-cerebellar circuits subserve differential aspects of rhythmic synchronization in regard to rhythmic motor control, conscious and subconscious response to temporal structure, and conscious monitoring of rhythmic pattern tracking.

The effectiveness of music as a mnemonic device on recognition memory for people with multiple sclerosis.

Research shows that people with multiple sclerosis exhibit learning and memory difficulties and that music can be used successfully as a mnemonic device to aid in learning and memory. However, there is currently no research investigating the effectiveness of music mnemonics as a compensatory learning strategy for people with multiple sclerosis. Participants with clinically definitive multiple sclerosis (N = 38) were given a verbal learning and memory test. Results from a recognition memory task were analyzed that compared learning through music (n = 20) versus learning through speech (n = 18). Preliminary baseline neuropsychological data were collected that measured executive functioning skills, learning and memory abilities, sustained attention, and level of disability. An independent samples t test showed no significant difference between groups on baseline neuropsychological functioning or on recognition task measures. Correlation analyses suggest that music mnemonics may facilitate learning for people who are less impaired by the disease. Implications for future research are discussed.

Temporal entrainment of cognitive functions: musical mnemonics induce brain plasticity and oscillatory synchrony in neural networks underlying memory.

In a series of experiments, we have begun to investigate the effect of music as a mnemonic device on learning and memory and the underlying plasticity of oscillatory neural networks. We used verbal learning and memory tests (standardized word lists, AVLT) in conjunction with electroencephalographic analysis to determine differences between verbal learning in either a spoken or musical (verbal materials as song lyrics) modality. In healthy adults, learning in both the spoken and music condition was associated with significant increases in oscillatory synchrony across all frequency bands. A significant difference between the spoken and music condition emerged in the cortical topography of the learning-related synchronization. When using EEG measures as predictors during learning for subsequent successful memory recall, significantly increased coherence (phase-locked synchronization) within and between oscillatory brain networks emerged for music in alpha and gamma bands. In a similar study with multiple sclerosis patients, superior learning and memory was shown in the music condition when controlled for word order recall, and subjects were instructed to sing back the word lists. Also, the music condition was associated with a significant power increase in the low-alpha band in bilateral frontal networks, indicating increased neuronal synchronization. Musical learning may access compensatory pathways for memory functions during compromised PFC functions associated with learning and recall. Music learning may also confer a neurophysiological advantage through the stronger synchronization of the neuronal cell assemblies underlying verbal learning and memory. Collectively our data provide evidence that melodic-rhythmic templates as temporal structures in music may drive internal rhythm formation in recurrent cortical networks involved in learning and memory.