Effects of Copper on the Neuromasts of Xenopus Laevis.

Fish and aquatic amphibians possess neuromasts on the surface of their body that constitute the lateral line, a sensory system used to detect water displacement. Copper is known to inactivate the neuromast organs of this system. Copper-induced neuromast loss in African clawed frogs, Xenopus laevis, was examined by exposing Nieuwkoop-Faber stage 54-55 larvae to copper concentrations of 0, 100, 200, 300, and 400 µg/L for 96 h, followed by an examination of neuromast counts, staining intensity, and behavioral responses. Neuromasts were counted using a novel imaging method across four different body regions: the whole body, partial body, head, and tail. Neuromast counts showed a decreasing, but nonsignificant, trend across increasing levels of copper exposure. Intensity of neuromast staining showed a stronger concentration-dependent decrease in all four body regions. The decrease in staining intensity, but not neuromast number, may indicate that although neuromasts are still functioning, they have a decreased number of viable hair cells. Potential loss of responsiveness related to neuromast damage was examined via sensitivity to puffs of air at varying distances. We detected little to no difference in response to the air puff stimulus between control tadpoles and tadpoles exposed to 400 µg/L of copper. Neuromasts of X. laevis may be more resistant to copper than those of North American tadpole species, possibly suggesting greater tolerance of the lateral line to environmental stressors in species that maintain this sensory system throughout their lifespan as compared with species that only have the lateral line during the larval period.

Influence of the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) and playa wetlands on pollinator communities in the Southern High Plains, USA.

Numerous studies have documented that invertebrate pollinator services are critical to the world economy. Factors including habitat loss and agricultural practices, however, threaten pollinator populations. Many counties in the Southern High Plains were identified as at risk for a shortage of pollination service from wild bees. This region also has one of the highest concentrations of Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) contracts in the US. The CRP is the largest, voluntary, private lands conservation program in the US and was targeted as a program to improve pollinator habitat. Our objective was to determine how the predominant land uses in the SHP (native grassland, CRP, and cropland) affect pollinator abundance and species richness, and more specifically if the CRP can provide quality habitat for pollinators. We also examined how the keystone habitat, playa wetlands, embedded within these land uses contribute to pollinator habitat (land type: uplands vs. wetland). We used blue vane traps placed in playa basins and adjacent uplands to determine Hymenoptera abundance and richness from April to October in 2013 and 2014. The CRP had lower abundance than cropland and native grassland, and generally less richness. Uplands and playa wetlands had little difference in Hymenoptera abundance and richness. Patch size negatively influenced abundance but had a positive influence on richness. The interaction of vegetation height and percent bare ground positively influenced abundance in cropland and native grasslands, and positively influenced richness in all land uses. In the CRP, vegetation height negatively influenced Hymenoptera abundance and percent bare ground had a positive influence. The years sampled in this study were during a severe extended drought; therefore, these results may be reflective of poor floral resources. The CRP has potential to create valuable habitat for pollinators if land managers incorporate a diversity of native grasses and native forbs into plantings to enhance pollinator foraging and nesting habitat.

Correlation between increased postpubertal phallic growth and the initiation of cranial sexual dimorphisms in male Morelet's crocodile.

While puberty is an animal commonality, little is known of its timing or process in crocodylians. Males copulate with an intromittent phallus that has a distinct glans morphology which directly interacts with the female cloaca, putatively effecting effective semen transfer and ultimately increased fecundity. Here we present, during the Morelet's crocodile lifecycle, a well-defined body length (65 cm snout-vent length) inflection point that marks a subsequent increase of phallic glans growth rates. Putatively, this postpubescent growth produces a copulatory-effective phallus. While not as robust of a trend as snout-vent length, this growth inflection concomitantly begins with a body condition index (CI = BM/SVL3 ) between 2.0 and 2.5 and is most distinct above a CI of 2.5. Also, in males, this 65 cm size threshold also aligns with the initiation of more robust growth in caniniform alveoli associated with prominent maxillary and mandibular teeth. This inflection was not observed in females, thus marking a sexual dimorphism that begins to present with the onset of puberty. This bodily manifestation of puberty other than those changes observed in the reproductive tracts is a novel observation for crocodylians and lays a foundation for further study among species of how changing endocrine signaling within sexually maturing males may also influence a broader range of secondary sex characteristics.

Relative Abundance Trends of Bird Populations in High Intensity Croplands in the Central United States.

Declining bird populations across the United States have been noted in a number of studies. Although multiple explanations have been proposed as causes of these declines, agricultural intensification has often been suggested as a significant driver of bird population dynamics. Using spatially explicit USDA-NASS Cropland Data Layer, we examined this relationship by comparing bird count data from the Breeding Bird Survey collected between 1995 and 2016 across 13 states in the central United States to corresponding categorical changes in land cover within a 2-km radius of each survey transect. This approach allowed us to compare the slopes of counts for 31 species of birds between grassland- and cropland-dominated landscapes and against increasing levels of cropland (all types combined) and pooled corn and soybean land cover types. Nearly all birds demonstrated significant responses to land cover changes. In all cases, the number of species exhibiting positive or negative responses was comparable, and median differences in percent change per year ranged from -0.5 to 0.7%. Species that responded either positively or negatively did not appear to fall into any particular foraging guild. If changes in agricultural practices are a major cause of declines, we would expect to see it across the spatial scale studied and across the majority of species. While these results do not rule out potential agricultural effects, such as toxicity resulting from pesticide exposure, which may have species-specific or localized effects, a variety of factors related to habitat are likely the most significant contributor overall. Given these results over a large spatial scale basis (multistate) and across numerous bird species, there is not a broad general trend of greater decline in crop-intensive areas. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2018;14:692-702. © 2018 SETAC.

Factors influencing the toxicity of Headline® fungicides to terrestrial stage toads.

Amphibians are susceptible to exposure from contaminants via multiple pathways. Pyraclostrobin fungicides have been shown to be toxic to terrestrial amphibians at environmentally relevant concentrations; however, these studies did not account for factors that may influence exposure and effects, such as fungicide formulation, age of the individual, exposure route, and physiological state of the individual. We examined Headline® and Headline AMP® fungicide toxicity to adult Anaxyrus cognatus and Anaxyrus woodhousii by direct overspray, as well as acute toxicity of Headline AMP to juvenile A. cognatus through direct overspray, previously exposed soils, and diet. We also assessed effects of hydration state on fungicide toxicity in juvenile A. cognatus and sublethal effects of fungicide exposure on prey-orientation ability of juvenile A. cognatus. Neither formulation of Headline caused mortality of adult A. cognatus and A. woodhousii at up to 5 times the maximum label rate in North American corn (1052 and 879 mL formulation/ha for Headline AMP and Headline fungicides, respectively, corresponding to 1.52 and 2.2 µg pyraclostrobin/cm2 , respectively). Exposures of juvenile A. cognatus to Headline AMP via direct overspray and previously exposed soils (2 types) resulted in median lethal rate (LR50) values of 2.4, 3.34, and 3.61 µg pyraclostrobin/cm2 , respectively. Dietary Headline AMP exposure was not toxic, prey-orientations were not influenced by exposure, and effects were similar between dehydrated and hydrated treatments (LR50 = 2.4 and 2.3 µg pyraclostrobin/cm2 , respectively). These results, combined with exposure concentrations reported in previous studies, suggest that risk of acute mortality for amphibians in terrestrial environments is low and is dictated by body size and site-specific factors influencing exposure. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:2679-2688. © 2017 SETAC.

Effects of Water Loss on New Mexico Spadefoot Toad (Spea multiplicata) Development, Spleen Cellularity, and Corticosterone Levels.

Amphibian metamorphosis is complex and larval morphology and physiology are completely restructured during this time. Amphibians that live in unpredictable environments are often exposed to stressors that can directly and indirectly alter physiological systems during development, with subsequent consequences (carryover effects) later in life. In this study, we investigated the effects of water level reduction on development rate, spleen size and cellularity, and examined the role of corticosterone levels in premetamorphic, metamorphic, and postmetamorphic New Mexico spadefoot toads (Spea multiplicata). Based on previous studies, we hypothesized that declining water level would increase tadpole developmental rate, but with the trade-off of increasing corticosterone to a level that would subsequently affect spleen size and cellularity, thus prolonging potential immunological suppression. Declining water levels increased developmental rate by 3 days; however, there were no significant body size effects. Corticosterone (CORT) was negatively correlated with total length, snout vent length, body weight, and spleen weight at metamorphosis, suggesting that size at metamorphosis and the immune system may be affected by excessive CORT levels. When compared to other studies, our results support the view that multiple factors may be acting as stressors in the field affecting amphibian responses, and simple pathways as tested in this study may not adequately represent field conditions.

Effectiveness of vegetation buffers surrounding playa wetlands at contaminant and sediment amelioration.

Playa wetlands, the dominant hydrological feature of the semi-arid U.S. High Plains providing critical ecosystem services, are being lost and degraded due to anthropogenic alterations of the short-grass prairie landscape. The primary process contributing to the loss of playas is filling of the wetland through accumulation of soil eroded and transported by precipitation from surrounding cultivated watersheds. We evaluated effectiveness of vegetative buffers surrounding playas in removing metals, nutrients, and dissolved/suspended sediments from precipitation runoff. Storm water runoff was collected at 10-m intervals in three buffer types (native grass, fallow cropland, and Conservation Reserve Program). Buffer type differed in plant composition, but not in maximum percent removal of contaminants. Within the initial 60 m from a cultivated field, vegetation buffers of all types removed >50% of all measured contaminants, including 83% of total suspended solids (TSS) and 58% of total dissolved solids (TDS). Buffers removed an average of 70% of P and 78% of N to reduce nutrients entering the playa. Mean maximum percent removal for metals ranged from 56% of Na to 87% of Cr. Maximum removal was typically at 50 m of buffer width. Measures of TSS were correlated with all measures of metals and nutrients except for N, which was correlated with TDS. Any buffer type with >80% vegetation cover and 30-60 m in width would maximize contaminant removal from precipitation runoff while ensuring that playas would continue to function hydrologically to provide ecosystem services. Watershed management to minimize erosion and creations of vegetation buffers could be economical and effective conservation tools for playa wetlands.

Occurrence of current-use fungicides and bifenthrin in Rainwater Basin wetlands.

Wetlands in the Rainwater Basin (RWB) of Nebraska are commonly in close proximity to or embedded within row-crop agriculture. Several fungicides and bifenthrin are applied aerially to corn throughout the RWB during tassel stage. Thus, aerial spray drift and runoff may result in pesticide contamination of wetlands. The primary objective of this study was to determine water concentrations of five fungicides and bifenthrin in wetlands located in and near fields during a heavy application period (July 16th-26th 2014) to evaluate the influence of distance from crop field on wetland contamination. In addition, the sampling sites were grouped based upon the type of water body sampled and environmental concentrations were compared to relevant "levels of concern" (LOCs) from invertebrates, fish, and amphibians selected from the literature based upon relevant toxicity data. Bifenthrin was the most frequently detected analyte, appearing in 83% of the samples. The 95th percentile concentrations across all wetlands were found to be 0.07 µg/L for bifenthrin, 0.28 µg/L for pyraclostrobin, 0.28 µg/L for azoxystrobin, and <0.14 µg/L for all other analytes. Analyte concentrations did not differ by wetland type and were not correlated with distance from closest crop. Environmental concentrations of fungicides were lower than LOCs, indicating limited acute toxicity risk. However, bifenthrin concentrations were frequently higher than LOCs for aquatic arthropods. Because the water samples included particulate bound pesticides, further work is needed to determine if this bifenthrin is bioavailable and contamination levels within the sediment.

Land use effects on pesticides in sediments of prairie pothole wetlands in North and South Dakota.

Prairie potholes are the dominant wetland type in the intensively cultivated northern Great Plains of North America, and thus have the potential to receive pesticide runoff and drift. We examined the presence of pesticides in sediments of 151 wetlands split among the three dominant land use types, Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), cropland, and native prairie, in North and South Dakota in 2011. Herbicides (glyphosate and atrazine) and fungicides were detected regularly, with no insecticide detections. Glyphosate was the most detected pesticide, occurring in 61% of all wetlands, with atrazine in only 8% of wetlands. Pyraclostrobin was one of five fungicides detected, but the only one of significance, being detected in 31% of wetlands. Glyphosate was the only pesticide that differed by land use, with concentrations in cropland over four-times that in either native prairie or CRP, which were equal in concentration and frequency of detection. Despite examining several landscape variables, such as wetland proximity to specific crop types, watershed size, and others, land use was the best variable explaining pesticide concentrations in potholes. CRP ameliorated glyphosate in wetlands at concentrations comparable to native prairie and thereby provides another ecosystem service from this expansive program.

Acute toxicity of Headline® fungicide to Blanchard's cricket frogs (Acris blanchardi).

Previous laboratory studies have suggested that pyraclostrobin-containing fungicide formulations are toxic to amphibians at environmentally relevant concentrations. However, it is unknown if all pyraclostrobin formulations have similar toxicity and if toxicity occurs in different amphibian species. We investigated the acute toxicity of two formulations, Headline(®) fungicide and Headline AMP(®) fungicide, to Blanchard's cricket frogs (Acris blanchardi) based on a direct overspray scenario. In addition, we examined body residues of fungicide active ingredients in A. blanchardi following direct exposure to Headline AMP fungicide. Headline fungicide and Headline AMP fungicide had similar toxicity to A. blanchardi with calculated median lethal doses of 2.1 and 1.7 µg pyraclostrobin/cm(2), respectively, which are similar to the suggested maximum label rate in North American corn (2.2 and 1.52 µg pyraclostrobin/cm(2), respectively). Tissue concentrations of pyraclostrobin were lower than predicted based on full uptake of a direct dose, and did not drop during the first 24 h after exposure. Headline fungicides at corn application rates are acutely toxic to cricket frogs, but acute toxicity in the field will depend on worst-case exposure.

Terrestrial exposure and effects of Headline AMP(®) Fungicide on amphibians.

Recent studies have demonstrated that a pyraclostrobin-containing fungicide (Headline(®) Fungicide--Headline(®) Fungicide and Headline AMP(®) Fungicide are registered trademarks of BASF) is toxic to amphibians at environmentally relevant concentrations. However, these studies were performed in a laboratory setting of a worst-case direct exposure in clean media. Interception of spray by the crop canopy and ground cover used by animals for security cover will influence exposure. Thus, risk to amphibians is unclear in an environmentally realistic field environment. We tested exposure and toxicity of Headline AMP(®) Fungicide to amphibians in multiple agricultural habitat scenarios (e.g., within treated crop vs. grassy areas adjacent to crop) and at two rates during routine aerial application. Specifically, we placed Woodhouse's toads (Bufo woodhousii) and Blanchard's cricket frogs (Acris blanchardi) in enclosures located within treated and untreated corn (VT stage, approximate height = 3 m), and in the potential drift area (adjacent to treated corn) during aerial application of Headline AMP Fungicide at either 731 or 1052 ml/ha (70 and 100 % the maximum application rate in corn, respectively). Mean concentrations of pyraclostrobin measured at ground level were ≤19 % of nominal application rate in all areas. Overall, mean mortality of recovered individuals of both species was ≤15 %, and mortality within Headline AMP Fungicide-treated corn (where risk was anticipated to be highest) was <10 %. It is important to understand that application timing, interception by the crop canopy (which varies both within and between crop systems), and timing of amphibian presence in the crop field influences risk of exposure and effects; however, our results demonstrate that amphibians inhabiting VT stage corn during routine aerial application of Headline AMP Fungicide are at low risk for acute mortality, matching existing laboratory results from acute toxicity studies of Headline Fungicide.

Effects of land-use change and fungicide application on soil respiration in playa wetlands and adjacent uplands of the U.S. High Plains.

With the increased use of fungicides in cultivated regions such as the southern High Plains (SHP), U.S., unintentional runoff and drift as well as direct overspray during aerial application lead to environmental exposures that may influence soil microbial communities and related biogeochemical functioning. Our goal was to examine the effects of two popular fungicides Headline (pyraclostrobin) and Quilt (azoxystrobin/propiconazole) on respiration from soil microbial communities in playa wetlands embedded in cropland and native grassland and their adjacent watersheds. We monitored fungicide effects (at levels of 0, .1×, 1× and 10× the label rate) by measuring respiration from plant matter amended soils collected from 6 cropland and 6 grassland playas and uplands. In addition, differences in microbial community structure among land use types were determined by measuring ergosterol levels in cropland and native grassland playas and uplands. Native grassland playas and their associated watersheds had up to 43% higher soil respiration rates than cropland playas and watersheds, indicating higher soil microbial activity. Application of either fungicide had no effect on soil respiration at any concentration in either land use type or habitat type (playa/watershed). Native grassland playas and watersheds had 3 and 1.6 times higher ergosterol content than cropland playas and watersheds. The lack of soil respiration response to fungicide application does not necessarily suggest that fungicides used in this study do not affect non-target soil microbial communities due to potential compensation by other biota. Future studies should further elucidate existing microorganism communities in playas and their watersheds.

Land use and conservation reserve program effects on the persistence of playa wetlands in the High Plains.

Watershed cultivation and subsequent soil erosion remains the greatest threat to the service provisioning of playa wetlands in the High Plains. The U.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA) Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) plants perennial vegetation cover on cultivated lands including playa watersheds, and therefore, the program influences sediment deposition and accumulation in playas. Our objective was to measure the effects of the CRP on sediment deposition by comparing sediment depth and present/historic size characteristics in 258 playas among three High-Plains subregions (northern, central, and southern) and the three dominant watershed types: cropland, CRP, and native grassland. Sediment depth and resultant volume loss for CRP playas were 40% and 57% lower than cropland playas, but 68% and 76% greater than playas in native grassland. Playas in CRP had remaining volumes exceeding those of cropland playas. Grassland playas had nearly three times more original playa volume and 122% greater wetland area than CRP playas. Overall, playas were larger in the south than other subregions. Sediment depth was also three times greater in the south than the north, which resulted in southern playas losing twice as much total volume as northern playas. However, the larger southern playas provide more remaining volume per playa than those in other subregions. The results of this study demonstrate the importance of proper watershed management in preserving playa wetland ecosystem service provisioning in the High Plains. Furthermore, we identify regional differences in playas that may influence management decisions and provide valuable insight to conservation practitioners trying to maximize wetland services with limited resources.

Chronic effects of strobilurin fungicides on development, growth, and mortality of larval Great Plains toads (Bufo cognatus).

Agricultural fungicide application has increased tenfold since 2005 in the United States. Active ingredients and formulations of strobilurin fungicides at environmentally relevant concentrations cause mortality to larval and metamorph amphibians; however, little is known about chronic exposure effects in amphibians. We exposed larval amphibians (Bufo cognatus) throughout metamorphosis to the common fungicide formulations Headline(®), Stratego(®), Quilt(®), and a control to determine effects on development and growth. Formulations were tested at 1.7, 50, and 400 µg/L of the active strobilurin ingredient for Headline(®), Stratego(®), and Quilt(®), respectively. Fungicide exposure did not affect body mass or snout-vent length at metamorphosis. However, exposure to Headline(®) at 1.7 µg/L increased the development rate of tadpoles by approximately 5 days compared to the control, an effect not observed for Stratego(®) and Quilt(®). Stratego(®) also caused approximately 35 % cumulative mortality. Results from the experiment suggest that chronic effects of strobilurin fungicides on development, growth, and mortality to B. cognatus are apparent at environmentally relevant concentrations.

Acute toxicity of pyraclostrobin and trifloxystrobin to Hyalella azteca.

Fungicide application rates on row crop agriculture have increased across the United States, and subsequently, contamination of adjacent wetlands can occur through spray drift or field runoff. To investigate fungicide toxicity, Hyalella azteca amphipods were exposed to 2 fungicide formulations, Headline and Stratego, and their active strobilurin ingredients, pyraclostrobin and trifloxystrobin. Water-only exposures resulted in similar median lethal concentration (LC50; 20-25 µg/L) values for formulations and strobilurin ingredients, suggesting that toxicity is due to strobilurin ingredients. These values were below concentrations that could occur following spray drift over embedded cropland wetlands. When fungicides were added to overlying water of sediment-water microcosms, toxicity was reduced by 500% for Headline and 160% for Stratego, compared with water-only exposures, based on the total amount of fungicide added to the systems. In addition, when fungicides were added to sediment prior to the addition of water, the reduction in toxicity was even greater, with no toxicity occurring at environmentally relevant levels. Differences in toxicity among exposure groups were explained by dissipation from water as toxicity values based on measured water concentrations were within 20% between all systems. The present study reinforces previous studies that Headline and Stratego are toxic to nontarget aquatic organisms. However, the presence of sediment is likely to ameliorate some toxicity of fungicide formulations, especially if spraying occurs prior to wetland inundation.

Effects of landuse and precipitation on pesticides and water quality in playa lakes of the southern high plains.

The 25000 playa wetlands within the Southern High Plains (SHP) of the United States of America (USA) are the dominant hydrogeomorphic feature in the region, providing habitat for numerous plants and wildlife. The SHP are among the most intensively cultivated regions; there are concerns over the degradation and/or loss of playa wetland habitat. We examined water quality in playa wetlands surrounded by both grassland and agriculture and measured water concentrations of pesticides used on cotton (acephate, trifluralin, malathion, pendimethalin, tribufos, bifenthrin, λ-cyhalothrin, acetamiprid, and thiamethoxam), the dominant crop in the SHP. Pesticides used on cotton were detected in water samples collected from all playas. Precipitation events and the amount of cultivation were related to pesticide concentrations in sediment and water. Our results show that pesticide concentrations were related in some circumstances to time, precipitation, and tilled-index for some but not all pesticides. We further compared measured pesticide concentrations in playas to toxicity benchmarks used by the US EPA in pesticide ecological risk assessments to obtain some insight into the potential for ecological effects. For all pesticides in water, the maximum measured concentrations exceeded at least one toxicity benchmark, while median concentrations did not exceed any benchmarks. This analysis indicates that there is a potential for adverse effects of pesticides to aquatic organisms.

Effects of agricultural tillage and sediment accumulation on emergent plant communities in playa wetlands of the U.S. High Plains.

Identifying community assembly filters is a primary ecological aim. The High Plains, a 30 million ha short-grass eco-region, is intensely cultivated. Cultivation disturbance, including plowing and eroded soil deposition down-slope of plowing, influences plant composition in depressional wetlands, such as playas, within croplands. We evaluated influences of wetland cultivation and sediment deposition on plant composition in playas embedded within croplands (46 plowed and 32 unplowed) and native grasslands (79) across 6 High Plains' states. Sediment accumulation ranged from 7 to 78 cm in cropland and 1 to 35 cm in grassland playas. Deeper sediments and plowing each decreased wetland plant richness, 28% and 70% respectively in cropland wetlands. Sediment depth reduced richness 37% in small grasslands playas while it increased richness 22% in larger ones, suggesting moderate disturbance increased richness when there were nearby propagule sources. Sediment depth was unrelated to species richness in plowed wetlands, probably because plowing was a strong disturbance. Plowing removed perennial plants from vegetation communities. Sediment accumulation also influenced species composition in cropland playas, e.g., probability of Eleocharis atropurpurea increased with sediment depth, while probability of Panicum capillare decreased. In grassland playas, observed lighter sediment depths did not influence species composition after accounting for wetland area. Sediment accumulation and plowing shift wetland plant communities toward annual species and decrease habitat connectivity for wetland-dependent organisms in cropland playas over 39,000 and 23,400 ha respectively. Conservation practices lessening sediment accumulation include short-grass buffer strips surrounding wetlands. Further, wetland tillage, allowed under federal agricultural conservation programs, should be eliminated.

Physical loss and modification of Southern Great Plains playas.

Playas are the primary wetland system in the Southern Great Plains (SGP) of North America providing critical stopover habitats for migratory birds in the Western Hemisphere. Collectively, these wetlands form the keystone ecosystem in this region supporting biodiversity for North America and provide habitat for native plants and animals that are essential for maintenance of international biological diversity along with other local and regional ecological services. Large-scale landscape changes in this region, primarily as a result of agriculturally-based anthropogenic impacts, threaten playas with functional loss and physical extinction. These impacts are not considered in current estimates of the number of extant functional playas, leading to biased estimates by groups or agencies extrapolating research or monitoring results, conducting conservation planning, and modeling impacts of future climate change. Using a combination of stochastic and empirical data, we identified impacts to playas and playa watersheds and quantified the extent and rate of these impacts relative to physical loss. Only 0.2% of playas had no wetland or watershed modification and we conservatively estimate that 17% of playas recently existing on the landscape no longer are represented by an apparent depression. With the inclusion of sediment volume estimates where ≥100% of the volume of original differentiated playa soil has been filled, 60% or 16,855 playas have been physically lost from the SGP despite a continued presence of a depression. Data also show that small playas are being lost more rapidly than larger ones; the average size (±SE) of extant playas has increased from 7.5 ± 0.47 to 8.5 ± 0.55 ha. The reduced ecological condition of 95.3% of playas remaining on the landscape exceeds historical predictions of a maximum 85% of playas ever being modified. Given the results of this study these changes can now be accounted for, resulting in more informed management and conservation of playas and bring awareness to the urgency of implementation of effective conservation measures for playas and the species that depend on this keystone ecosystem.

Acute toxicity of three strobilurin fungicide formulations and their active ingredients to tadpoles.

Fungicide applications in the United States have increased tenfold in the last 5 years. Formulations and active ingredients (AIs) have been demonstrated to cause acute mortality to amphibian life stages. However, there has been little to no discrimination between the toxicity of fungicide formulations and their AIs. Therefore, we compared the acute toxicity of the active ingredients and formulations of the fungicides Headline®, Stratego®, and Quilt® using Bufo cognatus tadpoles exposed to four concentrations and a control. All fungicides, including AIs and formulations, demonstrated toxicity to tadpoles, with Headline® and Stratego® causing 100 % mortality at the highest concentrations. Exposure to Quilt® formulation and its AIs resulted in 50-60 % tadpole mortality. Overall, toxicity was comparable between AIs and formulations for all fungicides and concentrations, with the exception of Headline® at 5 µg/L, where formulation exposure resulted in 79 % mortality versus no mortality from exposure to the AI. Results suggest the AIs are responsible for most mortality for Quilt® and Stratego®. Results for Headline® however suggest that although the AI is toxic to tadpoles at environmentally relevant concentrations, adjuvant(s) in the Headline® formulation also contribute to mortality, making it the most toxic of the fungicides studied.

Assessment of the effects of farming and conservation programs on pesticide deposition in high plains wetlands.

We examined pesticide contamination in sediments from depressional playa wetlands embedded in the three dominant land-use types in the western High Plains and Rainwater Basin of the United States including cropland, perennial grassland enrolled in conservation programs (e.g., Conservation Reserve Program [CRP]), and native grassland or reference condition. Two hundred and sixty four playas, selected from the three land-use types, were sampled from Nebraska and Colorado in the north to Texas and New Mexico in the south. Sediments were examined for most of the commonly used agricultural pesticides. Atrazine, acetochlor, metolachlor, and trifluralin were the most commonly detected pesticides in the northern High Plains and Rainwater Basin. Atrazine, metolachlor, trifluralin, and pendimethalin were the most commonly detected pesticides in the southern High Plains. The top 5-10% of playas contained herbicide concentrations that are high enough to pose a hazard for plants. However, insecticides and fungicides were rarely detected. Pesticide occurrence and concentrations were higher in wetlands surrounded by cropland as compared to native grassland and CRP perennial grasses. The CRP, which is the largest conservation program in the U.S., was protective and had lower pesticide concentrations compared to cropland.