N-arachidonylglycine is a caloric state-dependent circulating metabolite which regulates human CD4+T cell responsiveness.

Caloric deprivation interventions such as intermittent fasting and caloric restriction ameliorate metabolic and inflammatory disease. As a human model of caloric deprivation, a 24-h fast blunts innate and adaptive immune cell responsiveness relative to the refed state. Isolated serum at these time points confers these same immunomodulatory effects on transformed cell lines. To identify serum mediators orchestrating this, metabolomic and lipidomic analysis was performed on serum extracted after a 24-h fast and re-feeding. Bioinformatic integration with concurrent peripheral blood mononuclear cells RNA-seq analysis implicated key metabolite-sensing GPCRs in fasting-mediated immunomodulation. The putative GPR18 ligand N-arachidonylglycine (NAGly) was elevated during fasting and attenuated CD4+T cell responsiveness via GPR18 MTORC1 signaling. In parallel, NAGly reduced inflammatory Th1 and Th17 cytokines levels in CD4+T cells isolated from obese subjects, identifying a fasting-responsive metabolic intermediate that may contribute to the regulation of nutrient-level dependent inflammation associated with metabolic disease.

Long-chain ceramides are cell non-autonomous signals linking lipotoxicity to endoplasmic reticulum stress in skeletal muscle.

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) regulates cellular protein and lipid biosynthesis. ER dysfunction leads to protein misfolding and the unfolded protein response (UPR), which limits protein synthesis to prevent cytotoxicity. Chronic ER stress in skeletal muscle is a unifying mechanism linking lipotoxicity to metabolic disease. Unidentified signals from cells undergoing ER stress propagate paracrine and systemic UPR activation. Here, we induce ER stress and lipotoxicity in myotubes. We observe ER stress-inducing lipid cell non-autonomous signal(s). Lipidomics identifies that palmitate-induced cell stress induces long-chain ceramide 40:1 and 42:1 secretion. Ceramide synthesis through the ceramide synthase 2 de novo pathway is regulated by UPR kinase Perk. Inactivation of CerS2 in mice reduces systemic and muscle ceramide signals and muscle UPR activation. The ceramides are packaged into extracellular vesicles, secreted and induce UPR activation in naïve myotubes through dihydroceramide accumulation. This study furthers our understanding of ER stress by identifying UPR-inducing cell non-autonomous signals.

Enhanced hepatic respiratory capacity and altered lipid metabolism support metabolic homeostasis during short-term hypoxic stress.

BACKGROUND: Tissue hypoxia is a key feature of several endemic hepatic diseases, including alcoholic and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, and organ failure. Hypoxia imposes a severe metabolic challenge on the liver, potentially disrupting its capacity to carry out essential functions including fuel storage and the integration of lipid metabolism at the whole-body level. Mitochondrial respiratory function is understood to be critical in mediating the hepatic hypoxic response, yet the time-dependent nature of this response and the role of the respiratory chain in this remain unclear. RESULTS: Here, we report that hepatic respiratory capacity is enhanced following short-term exposure to hypoxia (2 days, 10% O2) and is associated with increased abundance of the respiratory chain supercomplex III2+IV and increased cardiolipin levels. Suppression of this enhanced respiratory capacity, achieved via mild inhibition of mitochondrial complex III, disrupted metabolic homeostasis. Hypoxic exposure for 2 days led to accumulation of plasma and hepatic long chain acyl-carnitines. This was observed alongside depletion of hepatic triacylglycerol species with total chain lengths of 39-53 carbons, containing palmitic, palmitoleic, stearic, and oleic acids, which are associated with de novo lipogenesis. The changes to hepatic respiratory capacity and lipid metabolism following 2 days hypoxic exposure were transient, becoming resolved after 14 days in line with systemic acclimation to hypoxia and elevated circulating haemoglobin concentrations. CONCLUSIONS: The liver maintains metabolic homeostasis in response to shorter term hypoxic exposure through transient enhancement of respiratory chain capacity and alterations to lipid metabolism. These findings may have implications in understanding and treating hepatic pathologies associated with hypoxia.

Brown and beige adipose tissue regulate systemic metabolism through a metabolite interorgan signaling axis.

Brown and beige adipose tissue are emerging as distinct endocrine organs. These tissues are functionally associated with skeletal muscle, adipose tissue metabolism and systemic energy expenditure, suggesting an interorgan signaling network. Using metabolomics, we identify 3-methyl-2-oxovaleric acid, 5-oxoproline, and ß-hydroxyisobutyric acid as small molecule metabokines synthesized in browning adipocytes and secreted via monocarboxylate transporters. 3-methyl-2-oxovaleric acid, 5-oxoproline and ß-hydroxyisobutyric acid induce a brown adipocyte-specific phenotype in white adipocytes and mitochondrial oxidative energy metabolism in skeletal myocytes both in vitro and in vivo. 3-methyl-2-oxovaleric acid and 5-oxoproline signal through cAMP-PKA-p38 MAPK and ß-hydroxyisobutyric acid via mTOR. In humans, plasma and adipose tissue 3-methyl-2-oxovaleric acid, 5-oxoproline and ß-hydroxyisobutyric acid concentrations correlate with markers of adipose browning and inversely associate with body mass index. These metabolites reduce adiposity, increase energy expenditure and improve glucose and insulin homeostasis in mouse models of obesity and diabetes. Our findings identify beige adipose-brown adipose-muscle physiological metabokine crosstalk.

Divergent trajectories of cellular bioenergetics, intermediary metabolism and systemic redox status in survivors and non-survivors of critical illness.

BACKGROUND: Numerous pathologies result in multiple-organ failure, which is thought to be a direct consequence of compromised cellular bioenergetic status. Neither the nature of this phenotype nor its relevance to survival are well understood, limiting the efficacy of modern life-support. METHODS: To explore the hypothesis that survival from critical illness relates to changes in cellular bioenergetics, we combined assessment of mitochondrial respiration with metabolomic, lipidomic and redox profiling in skeletal muscle and blood, at multiple timepoints, in 21 critically ill patients and 12 reference patients. RESULTS: We demonstrate an end-organ cellular phenotype in critical illness, characterized by preserved total energetic capacity, greater coupling efficiency and selectively lower capacity for complex I and fatty acid oxidation (FAO)-supported respiration in skeletal muscle, compared to health. In survivors, complex I capacity at 48 h was 27% lower than in non-survivors (p = 0.01), but tended to increase by day 7, with no such recovery observed in non-survivors. By day 7, survivors' FAO enzyme activity was double that of non-survivors (p = 0.048), in whom plasma triacylglycerol accumulated. Increases in both cellular oxidative stress and reductive drive were evident in early critical illness compared to health. Initially, non-survivors demonstrated greater plasma total antioxidant capacity but ultimately higher lipid peroxidation compared to survivors. These alterations were mirrored by greater levels of circulating total free thiol and nitrosated species, consistent with greater reductive stress and vascular inflammation, in non-survivors compared to survivors. In contrast, no clear differences in systemic inflammatory markers were observed between the two groups. CONCLUSION: Critical illness is associated with rapid, specific and coordinated alterations in the cellular respiratory machinery, intermediary metabolism and redox response, with different trajectories in survivors and non-survivors. Unravelling the cellular and molecular foundation of human resilience may enable the development of more effective life-support strategies.

Mtrr hypomorphic mutation alters liver morphology, metabolism and fuel storage in mice.

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is associated with dietary folate deficiency and mutations in genes required for one­carbon metabolism. However, the mechanism through which this occurs is unclear. To improve our understanding of this link, we investigated liver morphology, metabolism and fuel storage in adult mice with a hypomorphic mutation in the gene methionine synthase reductase (Mtrr gt ). MTRR enzyme is a key regulator of the methionine and folate cycles. The Mtrr gt mutation in mice was previously shown to disrupt one­carbon metabolism and cause a wide-spectrum of developmental phenotypes and late adult-onset macrocytic anaemia. Here, we showed that livers of Mtrr gt/gt female mice were enlarged compared to control C57Bl/6J livers. Histological analysis of these livers revealed eosinophilic hepatocytes with decreased glycogen content, which was associated with down-regulation of genes involved in glycogen synthesis (e.g., Ugp2 and Gsk3a genes). While female Mtrr gt/gt livers showed evidence of reduced ß-oxidation of fatty acids, there were no other associated changes in the lipidome in female or male Mtrr gt/gt livers compared with controls. Defects in glycogen storage and lipid metabolism often associate with disruption of mitochondrial electron transfer system activity. However, defects in mitochondrial function were not detected in Mtrr gt/gt livers as determined by high-resolution respirometry analysis. Overall, we demonstrated that adult Mtrr gt/gt female mice showed abnormal liver morphology that differed from the NAFLD phenotype and that was accompanied by subtle changes in their hepatic metabolism and fuel storage.

Inorganic Nitrate Promotes Glucose Uptake and Oxidative Catabolism in White Adipose Tissue Through the XOR-Catalyzed Nitric Oxide Pathway.

An aging global population combined with sedentary lifestyles and unhealthy diets has contributed to an increasing incidence of obesity and type 2 diabetes. These metabolic disorders are associated with perturbations to nitric oxide (NO) signaling and impaired glucose metabolism. Dietary inorganic nitrate, found in high concentration in green leafy vegetables, can be converted to NO in vivo and demonstrates antidiabetic and antiobesity properties in rodents. Alongside tissues including skeletal muscle and liver, white adipose tissue is also an important physiological site of glucose disposal. However, the distinct molecular mechanisms governing the effect of nitrate on adipose tissue glucose metabolism and the contribution of this tissue to the glucose-tolerant phenotype remain to be determined. Using a metabolomic and stable-isotope labeling approach, combined with transcriptional analysis, we found that nitrate increases glucose uptake and oxidative catabolism in primary adipocytes and white adipose tissue of nitrate-treated rats. Mechanistically, we determined that nitrate induces these phenotypic changes in primary adipocytes through the xanthine oxidoreductase-catalyzed reduction of nitrate to NO and independently of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α. The nitrate-mediated enhancement of glucose uptake and catabolism in white adipose tissue may be a key contributor to the antidiabetic effects of this anion.

Decrease in Myelin-Associated Lipids Precedes Neuronal Loss and Glial Activation in the CNS of the Sandhoff Mouse as Determined by Metabolomics.

Sandhoff disease (SD) is a lysosomal disease caused by mutations in the gene coding for the ß subunit of ß-hexosaminidase, leading to deficiency in the enzymes ß-hexosaminidase (HEX) A and B. SD is characterised by an accumulation of gangliosides and related glycolipids, mainly in the central nervous system, and progressive neurodegeneration. The underlying cellular mechanisms leading to neurodegeneration and the contribution of inflammation in SD remain undefined. The aim of the present study was to measure global changes in metabolism over time that might reveal novel molecular pathways of disease. We used liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and 1H Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy to profile intact lipids and aqueous metabolites, respectively. We examined spinal cord and cerebrum from healthy and Hexb -/- mice, a mouse model of SD, at ages one, two, three and four months. We report decreased concentrations in lipids typical of the myelin sheath, galactosylceramides and plasmalogen-phosphatidylethanolamines, suggesting that reduced synthesis of myelin lipids is an early event in the development of disease pathology. Reduction in neuronal density is progressive, as demonstrated by decreased concentrations of N-acetylaspartate and amino acid neurotransmitters. Finally, microglial activation, indicated by increased amounts of myo-inositol correlates closely with the late symptomatic phases of the disease.

A randomized 3-way crossover study indicates that high-protein feeding induces de novo lipogenesis in healthy humans.

BACKGROUNDDietary changes have led to the growing prevalence of type 2 diabetes and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. A hallmark of both disorders is hepatic lipid accumulation, derived in part from increased de novo lipogenesis. Despite the popularity of high-protein diets for weight loss, the effect of dietary protein on de novo lipogenesis is poorly studied. We aimed to characterize the effect of dietary protein on de novo lipid synthesis.METHODSWe use a 3-way crossover interventional study in healthy males to determine the effect of high-protein feeding on de novo lipogenesis, combined with in vitro models to determine the lipogenic effects of specific amino acids. The primary outcome was a change in de novo lipogenesis-associated triglycerides in response to protein feeding.RESULTSWe demonstrate that high-protein feeding, rich in glutamate, increases de novo lipogenesis-associated triglycerides in plasma (1.5-fold compared with control; P < 0.0001) and liver-derived very low-density lipoprotein particles (1.8-fold; P < 0.0001) in samples from human subjects (n = 9 per group). In hepatocytes, we show that glutamate-derived carbon is incorporated into triglycerides via palmitate. In addition, supplementation with glutamate, glutamine, and leucine, but not lysine, increased triglyceride synthesis and decreased glucose uptake. Glutamate, glutamine, and leucine increased activation of protein kinase B, suggesting that induction of de novo lipogenesis occurs via the insulin signaling cascade.CONCLUSIONThese findings provide mechanistic insight into how select amino acids induce de novo lipogenesis and insulin resistance, suggesting that high-protein feeding to tackle diabetes and obesity requires greater consideration.FUNDINGThe research was supported by UK Medical Research Council grants MR/P011705/1, MC_UP_A090_1006 and MR/P01836X/1. JLG is supported by the Imperial Biomedical Research Centre, National Institute for Health Research (NIHR).

Inorganic Nitrate Mimics Exercise-Stimulated Muscular Fiber-Type Switching and Myokine and γ-Aminobutyric Acid Release.

Exercise is an effective intervention for the prevention and treatment of type 2 diabetes. Skeletal muscle combines multiple signals that contribute to the beneficial effects of exercise on cardiometabolic health. Inorganic nitrate increases exercise efficiency, tolerance, and performance. The transcriptional regulator peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1α (PGC1α) coordinates the exercise-stimulated skeletal muscle fiber-type switch from glycolytic fast-twitch (type IIb) to oxidative slow-twitch (type I) and intermediate (type IIa) fibers, an effect reversed in insulin resistance and diabetes. We found that nitrate induces PGC1α expression and a switch toward type I and IIa fibers in rat muscle and myotubes in vitro. Nitrate induces the release of exercise/PGC1α-dependent myokine FNDC5/irisin and ß-aminoisobutyric acid from myotubes and muscle in rats and humans. Both exercise and nitrate stimulated PGC1α-mediated γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) secretion from muscle. Circulating GABA concentrations were increased in exercising mice and nitrate-treated rats and humans; thus, GABA may function as an exercise/PGC1α-mediated myokine-like small molecule. Moreover, nitrate increased circulating growth hormone levels in humans and rodents. Nitrate induces physiological responses that mimic exercise training and may underlie the beneficial effects of this metabolite on exercise and cardiometabolic health.