Curiosity Satisfaction Increases Event-related Potentials Sensitive to Reward.

Successful learning depends on various factors such as depth of processing, motivation, or curiosity about information. A strong drive to learn something or the expectation of receiving a reward can be crucial to enhance learning. However, the influence of curiosity on the processing of new information and its similarity with reward processing is not well understood. This study examined whether states of curiosity influence specific ERPs associated with reward processing and whether these ERPs are related with later memory benefits. In an initial screening phase, participants indicated their curiosity and confidence in prior knowledge about answers to various trivia questions. In a subsequent study phase, we targeted different time windows related to reward processing during the presentation of trivia answers containing the reward positivity (RewP; 250-350 msec), the P3 (250-500 msec), and the late-positive-potential (LPP; 600-1000 msec). In a following surprise memory test, we found that participants recalled more high- than low-curiosity answers. The RewP, P3, and LPP showed greater positive mean amplitudes for high compared with low curiosity, reflecting increased reward processing. In addition, we found that the RewP and the P3 showed more positive mean amplitudes for later recalled compared with later forgotten answers, but curiosity did not modulate this encoding-related results. These findings support the view that the satisfaction of curiosity resembles reward processing, indicated by ERPs.

ORCA: A picture database of object-scene arrangements for cross-cultural and aging research.

In recent years, cross-cultural research on the modulation of basic cognitive processes by culture has intensified - also from an aging perspective. Despite this increased research interest, only a few cross-culturally normed non-verbal stimulus sets are available to support cross-cultural cognitive research in younger and older adults. Here we present the ORCA (Official Rating of Complex Arrangements) picture database, which includes a total of 720 object-scene compositions sorted into 180 quadruples (e.g., two different helmets placed in two different deserts). Each quadruple contains visually and semantically matched pairs of objects and pairs of scenes with varying degrees of semantic fit between objects and scenes. A total of 95 younger and older German and Chinese adults rated every object-scene pair on object familiarity and semantic fit between object and scene. While the ratings were significantly correlated between cultures and age groups, small but significant culture and age differences emerged. Object familiarity was higher for older adults than younger adults and for German participants than for Chinese participants. Semantic fit was rated lower by German older adults and Chinese younger adults as compared to German younger adults and Chinese older adults. Due to the large number of stimuli, our database is particularly well suited for cognitive and neuroscientific research on cross-cultural and age-related differences in perception, attention, and memory.

Schema-congruency supports the formation of unitized representations: Evidence from event-related potentials.

The main goal of the present study was to investigate whether schema-based encoding of novel word pairs (i.e., novel compound words) supports the formation of unitized representations and thus, associative familiarity-based recognition. We report two experiments that both comprise an incidental learning task, in which novel noun-noun compound words were presented in semantically congruent contexts, enabling schema-supported processing of both constituents, contrasted with a schema-neutral condition. In Experiment 1, the effects of schema congruency on memory performance were larger for associative memory performance than for item memory performance in a memory test in which intact, recombined, and new compound words had to be discriminated. This supports the view that schema congruency boosts associative memory by promoting unitization. When contrasting event-related potentials (ERPs) for hits with correct rejections or associative misses, an N400 attenuation effect (520-676 ms) indicating absolute familiarity was present in the congruent condition, but not in the neutral condition. In line with this, a direct comparison of ERPs on hits across conditions revealed more positive waveforms in the congruent than in the neutral condition. This suggests that absolute familiarity contributes to associative recognition memory when schema-supported processing is established. In Experiment 2, we tested whether schema congruency enables the formation of semantically overlapping representations. Therefore, we included semantically similar lure compound words in the test phase and compared false alarm rates to these lures across conditions. In line with our hypothesis, we found higher false alarm rates in the congruent as compared to the neutral condition. In conclusion, we provide converging evidence for the view that schema congruency enables the formation of unitized representations and supports familiarity-based memory retrieval.

Electrophysiological evidence for context reinstatement effects on object recognition memory.

Reinstating the context present at encoding during the test phase generally enhances recognition memory compared with changing the context when specific item-context associations are established during encoding. However, it remains unclear whether context reinstatement improves the performance in differentiating between old and similar items in recognition memory tests and what underlying cognitive processes are involved. Using the context reinstatement paradigm together with event-related potentials (ERP), we examined the context-dependent effects of background scenes on recognition discrimination among similar objects. Participants were instructed to associate intentionally specific objects with background scenes during the encoding phase and subsequently complete an object recognition memory task, during which old and similar new objects were presented superimposed over the studied old or similar new background scenes. Electroencephalogram was recorded to measure the electrophysiological manifestations of cognitive processes associated with episodic retrieval. Behavioral results revealed enhanced performance in differentiating old from similar objects in the old context, as opposed to the similar context condition. Importantly, ERP results indicated a more pronounced recollection-related parietal object old/new effect in the old context compared to the similar context condition. This suggests that the ability to distinguish between old and similar objects in recognition memory is primarily driven by recollection rather than familiarity, particularly when the encoding context is reinstated during the test phase. Our findings are in line with the account that the impact of context reinstatement on object recognition memory is attributable to the enhanced recollection of specific item-context associations during retrieval and provides evidence for the specificity of episodic associative representations.

Not so different after all? An event-related potential study on item and source memory for object-scene pairs in German and Chinese young adults.

In recent years, several cross-cultural studies reported that Westerners focus more on central aspects of a scene (e.g., an object) relative to peripheral aspects (e.g., the background), whereas Easterners more evenly allocate attention to central and peripheral aspects. In memory tasks, Easterners exhibit worse recognition for the central object when peripheral aspects are changed, whereas Westerners are less affected by peripheral changes. However, most of these studies rely on hit rates without correcting for response bias, whereas studies accounting for response bias failed to replicate cultural differences in memory tasks. In this event-related potential (ERP) study, we investigated item and source memory for semantically unrelated object-scene pairs in German and Chinese young adults using memory measures corrected for response bias (i.e., the discrimination index Pr). Both groups completed study-test cycles with either item memory tests or source memory tests. In item memory blocks, participants completed an old/new recognition test for the central object. Source memory blocks entailed an associative recognition test for the association between object and background. Item and source memory were better for intact than for recombined pairs. However, as verified with frequentist and Bayesian analyzes, this context effect was not modulated by culture. The ERP results revealed an old/new effect for the item memory task in both groups which was again not modulated by culture. Our findings suggest that cultural differences in young adults do not manifest in intentional memory tasks probing memory for object-scene pairs without semantic relations when using bias-corrected memory measures.

Observing memory encoding while it unfolds: Functional interpretation and current debates regarding ERP subsequent memory effects.

Our ability to remember the past depends on neural processes set in train in the moment an event is experienced. These processes can be studied by segregating brain activity according to whether an event is later remembered or forgotten. The present review integrates a large number of studies examining this differential brain activity, labeled subsequent memory effect (SME), with the ERP technique, into a functional organization and discusses routes for further research. Based on the reviewed literature, we suggest that memory encoding is implemented by multiple processes, typically reflected in three functionally different subcomponents of the ERP SME elicited by study stimuli, which presumably interact with preparatory SME activity preceding the to be encoded event. We argue that ERPs are a valuable method in the SME paradigm because they have a sufficiently high temporal resolution to disclose the subcomponents of encoding-related brain activity. Implications of the proposed functional organization for future studies using the SME procedure in basic and applied settings will be discussed.

Task context dissociates the FN400 and the N400.

In event-related potential studies, familiarity-based recognition has been associated with the FN400, that is, more positive-going waveforms for old items than new items 300-500 ms post-stimulus onset, maximal at frontal electrodes. We tested the proposition that the FN400 reflects the attribution of unexpected processing fluency to familiarity. This implies that the FN400 is greater when fluency is less expected, that is, for less familiar stimuli. Moreover, the FN400 should be modulated by the goal of remembering and only elicited when fluency is correctly attributed to the past, that is, by correct old responses in recognition memory tests. In the absence of a retrieval task, enhanced fluency for repeated items should be associated with an N400 attenuation as no episodic attribution takes place. In an incidental study-test design with words of low and high life-time familiarity, participants made pleasantness judgments for half of the studied words. The other half re-appeared in a recognition test. Only in the latter task, participants had the goal of remembering. As both tasks included also new words, we could compare old/new effects under conditions in which both effects are driven by increased fluency for repeated words. We did not find the expected differences in the FN400 for low vs. high life-time familiarity items. However, as expected, we found a frontally distributed FN400 in the recognition test whereas the old/new effect in the pleasantness task resembled an N400 effect. This supports the view that the FN400 occurs when fluency is attributed to familiarity during a recognition decision.

Theta Neurofeedback Training Supports Motor Performance and Flow Experience.

Flow is defined as a cognitive state that is associated with a feeling of automatic and effortless control, enabling peak performance in highly challenging situations. In sports, flow can be enhanced by mindfulness training, which has been associated with frontal theta activity (4-8 Hz). Moreover, frontal-midline theta oscillations were shown to subserve control processes in a large variety of cognitive tasks. Based on previous theta neurofeedback training studies, which revealed that one training session is sufficient to enhance motor performance, the present study investigated whether one 30-minute session of frontal-midline theta neurofeedback training (1) enhances flow experience additionally to motor performance in a finger tapping task, and (2) transfers to cognitive control processes in an n-back task. Participants, who were able to successfully upregulate their theta activity during neurofeedback training (responders), showed better motor performance and flow experience after training than participants, who did not enhance their theta activity (non-responders). Across all participants, increase of theta activity during training was associated with motor performance enhancement from pretest to posttest irrespective of pre-training performance. Interestingly, theta training gains were also linked to the increase of flow experience, even when corresponding increases in motor performance were controlled for. Results for the n-back task were not significant. Even though these findings are mainly correlational in nature and additional flow-promoting influences need to be investigated, the present findings suggest that frontal-midline theta neurofeedback training is a promising tool to support flow experience with additional relevance for performance enhancement.

Can the elderly take the action? - The influence of unitization induced by action relationships on the associative memory deficit.

Healthy aging is associated with intact familiarity, whereas recollection, usually supporting associative memory, is attenuated. Accordingly, associative memory shows a stronger age-related decline than item memory. One approach to alleviate age-related associative memory deficits is to increase the contribution of familiarity to associative memory by creating encoding conditions that allow to integrate separate stimuli to an entity (unitization). The current study investigated whether bottom-up unitization can reduce age-related differences in associative memory. Younger (YA) and older adults (OA) studied associations between semantically unrelated objects, spatially arranged in a way that an action between these two objects is possible (unitized, e.g., emptying a bottle into a sneaker) or not (non-unitized). At test, participants distinguished intact from recombined and new object pairs. As expected, we found larger age differences for associative memory than for item memory. Additionally, the presence of action relationships supports memory performance in both age groups. In the event-related potentials (ERP) of the test phase, we observed an age-related attenuation of recollection and preserved familiarity independent of the action relationship condition. Considering comparisons including the recombined pairs, the ERP correlate of associative familiarity (i.e., intact vs. recombined) was present in OA for action-related pairs, whereas for YA, there was no evidence for enhanced familiarity for action-related pairs. In the late time window, ERP evidence for recollection for intact action-related object pairs was obtained independent of age group. In conclusion, both age groups benefited from unitization by action relationships but by different mechanisms. While YA show no associative familiarity for action-related object pairs but a general reliance on recollection for associations in action-related and -unrelated pairs, OA seem to rely more on familiarity for the specific arrangement of action-related pairs.

Benefits and costs of predictive processing: How sentential constraint and word expectedness affect memory formation.

This study investigated how the strength of schema support provided by strongly (SC) and weakly constraining (WC) sentences affects the encoding of expected and unexpected words, and how this is reflected in event-related potentials (ERPs). In a surprise recognition memory test, words studied on the previous day were presented together with new words and lures that were expected but not presented in the study phase. ERPs recorded in the study phase were compared for subsequently remembered and forgotten words. Better memory performance for expected over unexpected words was electrophysiologically supported by a parietal subsequent memory effect (SME) reflecting enhanced item-specific encoding of contextually expected words. SC sentences not only facilitated the semantic integration of sentence-ending words, as reflected in reduced N400 amplitudes, but also enabled the rapid successful encoding of these words into memory, which is evidenced by an SC > WC pattern in memory performance and correlations between pre- and post-stimulus SMEs for SC sentences. In contrast, words processed in WC sentence contexts necessitated sustained elaborative encoding processes as reflected in a late frontal slow wave SME. Expected but not presented words were associated with high rates of false positive memory decisions, indicating that these words remained in a state of high accessibility in memory even one day after the study phase. These mnemonic costs of predictive processing were more pronounced for expected words from SC sentences than from WC sentences and could reflect the lingering of strong semantic predictions which were associated with the pre-updating of sentence representations.

Effects of emotional study context on immediate and delayed recognition memory: Evidence from event-related potentials.

Whilst research has largely focused on the recognition of emotional items, emotion may be a more subtle part of our surroundings and conveyed by context rather than by items. Using ERPs, we investigated which effects an arousing context during encoding may have for item-context binding and subsequent familiarity-based and recollection-based item-memory. It has been suggested that arousal could facilitate item-context bindings and by this enhance the contribution of recollection to subsequent memory judgements. Alternatively, arousal could shift attention onto central features of a scene and by this foster unitisation during encoding. This could boost the contribution of familiarity to remembering. Participants learnt neutral objects paired with ecologically highly valid emotional faces whose names later served as neutral cues during an immediate and delayed test phase. Participants identified objects faster when they had originally been studied together with emotional context faces. Items with both neutral and emotional context elicited an early frontal ERP old/new difference (200-400 ms). Neither the neurophysiological correlate for familiarity nor recollection were specific to emotionality. For the ERP correlate of recollection, we found an interaction between stimulus type and day, suggesting that this measure decreased to a larger extend on Day 2 compared with Day 1. However, we did not find direct evidence for delayed forgetting of items encoded in emotional contexts at Day 2. Emotion at encoding might make retrieval of items with emotional context more readily accessible, but we found no significant evidence that emotional context either facilitated familiarity-based or recollection-based item-memory after a delay of 24 h.

Improving cognitive control: Is theta neurofeedback training associated with proactive rather than reactive control enhancement?

Frontal-midline (FM) theta activity (4-8 Hz) is proposed to reflect a mechanism for cognitive control that is needed for working memory retention, manipulation, and interference resolution. Modulation of FM theta activity via neurofeedback training (NFT) demonstrated transfer to some but not all types of cognitive control. Therefore, the present study investigated whether FM theta NFT enhances performance and modulates underlying EEG characteristics in a delayed match to sample (DMTS) task requiring mainly proactive control and a color Stroop task requiring mainly reactive control. Moreover, temporal characteristics of transfer were explored over two posttests. Across seven 30-min NFT sessions, an FM theta training group exhibited a larger FM theta increase compared to an active control group who upregulated randomly chosen frequency bands. In a posttest performed 13 days after the last training session, the training group showed better retention performance in the DMTS task. Furthermore, manipulation performance was associated with NFT theta increase for the training but not the control group. Contrarily, behavioral group differences and their relation to FM theta change were not significant in the Stroop task, suggesting that NFT is associated with proactive but not reactive control enhancement. Transfer to both tasks at a posttest one day after training was not significant. Behavioral improvements were not accompanied by changes in FM theta activity, indicating no training-induced modulation of EEG characteristics. Together, these findings suggest that NFT supports transfer to cognitive control that manifests late after training but that other training-unspecific factors may also contribute to performance enhancement.

The more you know: Schema-congruency supports associative encoding of novel compound words. Evidence from event-related potentials.

We aimed to investigate the neurocognitive mechanisms of event congruency with prior (schema) knowledge for the learning of novel compound words. Event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded during an incidental learning task, in which novel noun-noun compounds were presented in a semantically congruent context, enabling schema-supported processing, or in a neutral context. As expected, associative memory performance was better for compounds preceded by a congruent context. Although the N400 was attenuated in the congruent condition, subsequent memory effects (SMEs) in the N400 time interval did not differ across conditions, suggesting that the processes reflected in the N400 cannot account for the memory advantage in the congruent condition. However, a parietal SME was obtained for compounds preceded by a congruent context, only, which we interpret as reflecting the schema-supported formation of a conceptual compound representation. A late frontal SME was obtained in both conditions, presumably reflecting the more general inter-item associative encoding of compound constituents.

The ERP correlate of episodic recollection is a neurocognitive determinant of subjective memory complaints: Implications on their predictive validity.

Objective: Subjective memory complaints (SMCs) seem to be a promising marker of cognitive decline and progressing dementia in healthy older adults. However, SMCs have not been invariably related to memory performance, probably because objective tests do not always target the specific neurocognitive processes that underlie SMCs. This study disentangles the neurocognitive basis of memory-specific SMCs by investigating their dependence on episodic recollection which relies on the hippocampal relational memory system as well as their predictive value for memory tests that target such processes. Method: In 29 healthy participants, aged 52-70 years, we assessed SMCs, using the Memory Assessment Clinics Self-Rating Scale (MAC-S), episodic recollection and associated event-related potentials (ERPs), the Verbal Learning and Memory Test (VLMT), which assesses hippocampal functions, as well as depressive symptomology, using Beck Depression Inventory II (BDI). We used correlational and regression models to estimate the association of SMCs with recollection and VLMT performance, independent of age, depressive symptomology, and the P300, an ERP correlate of attentional processes. Results: The ERP correlate of source-recollection significantly accounted for 9% unique variance in SMCs. Moreover, SMCs explained unique proportions of variance in several VLMT measures (ΔR 2 ranging from .07 to .17). Conclusions: SMCs are partially determined by malfunctioning of the hippocampal relational memory system. In line with this, SMCs predict performance in objective memory tests if they also target hippocampally dependent processes. The study emphasizes the prognostic relevance of SMCs as episodic memory decline is an important preclinical marker for the development of Alzheimer's Disease (AD). (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Prospective associations between intelligence, working memory capacity, and intrusive memories of a traumatic film: Potential mediating effects of rumination and memory disorganization.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Field research indicates that lower intelligence may predispose trauma-exposed individuals towards the development of re-experiencing symptoms. However, this assumption requires further testing in controlled prospective studies. In the current analog study, we tested whether lower fluid intelligence and lower working memory capacity (WMC) independently contribute to intrusion development. Moreover, we investigated potential mediating effects of trauma memory characteristics and trait rumination. METHODS: 118 healthy participants completed tests measuring fluid intelligence and WMC. Two days later, they were exposed to a film clip depicting traumatic events (i.e., so-called trauma film). After exposure to the film, intrusions were assessed using a diary and an intrusion triggering task. RESULTS: Our analyses revealed a negative correlation between fluid intelligence and intrusions during the intrusion triggering task. WMC did not correlate with any intrusion measure. Moreover, planned analyses did not yield any mediation effects. LIMITATIONS: We used the trauma film paradigm to examine analog posttraumatic stress symptoms. This approach limits the generalizability of our findings with regard to symptom development following real-life traumatic events. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show for the first time that higher fluid intelligence is associated with fewer intrusions of a trauma film. This association was evident for laboratory but not for ambulatory intrusions. By demonstrating this association using a prospective experimental design, our study importantly corroborates previous field research.

May the source be with you! Electrophysiological correlates of retrieval orientation are associated with source memory performance.

Successful source memory retrieval is assumed to rely on intact preretrieval processes, such as retrieval orientation (RO). RO is the specialized processing of retrieval cues, depending on the type of information, memory is searched for. In a previous study, a positive frontal slow wave RO ERP effect was interpreted as reflecting memory search for self-relevant information. However, such a functional interpretation is hampered by the use of retrieval strategies as a consequence of which target source information can be indirectly inferred from the correct classification of non-target source information. To overcome this limitation, the present study compared two types of source information (i.e. color or character information) by asking participants to remember details within each source type and thus enforcing the selective retrieval of target information. Consistent with previous research, a positive frontal ERP component (600-800 ms post-stimulus) differentiated between correct rejections in both tasks, probably reflecting memory search for self-relevant information. Moreover, the RO ERP effect was associated with better source memory performance, providing evidence for the beneficial effect of ROs for memory retrieval. This relationship might be covered in memory exclusion tasks due to non-target retrieval.

Usefulness of familiarity signals during recognition depends on test format: Neurocognitive evidence for a core assumption of the CLS framework.

Familiarity-based discrimination between studied items and similar foils in yes/no recognition memory tests is relatively poor. The complementary learning systems (CLS) framework explains this with the small difference in familiarity strength between targets and foils. The framework, however, also predicts that familiarity values of targets and corresponding similar foils are directly comparable - as long as they are presented side by side in a forced-choice corresponding (FCC) test. This is because in each trial, targets tend to be more familiar than their corresponding foils. In contrast, when forced-choice displays contain non-corresponding foils (FCNC) which are similar to other studied items, familiarity values are not directly comparable (as in yes/no-tasks). In a recognition memory task with pictures of objects, we found that the putative ERP correlate of familiarity, the mid-frontal old/new effect for targets vs. foils, was significantly larger in FCC compared to FCNC displays. Moreover, single-trial target-foil amplitude differences predicted the accuracy of the recognition judgment. This study supports the assumption of the CLS framework that the test format can influence the diagnostic reliability of familiarity. Moreover, it implies that the mid-frontal old/new effect does not reflect the difference in the familiarity signal between studied and non-studied items but the task-adequate assessment of this signal.

Improving episodic memory: Frontal-midline theta neurofeedback training increases source memory performance.

Cognitive and neurofeedback training (NFT) studies have demonstrated that training-induced alterations of frontal-midline (FM) theta activity (4-8 Hz) transfer to cognitive control processes. Given that FM theta oscillations are assumed to provide top-down control for episodic memory retrieval, especially for source retrieval, that is, accurate recollection of contextual details of prior episodes, the present study investigated whether FM theta NFT transfers to memory control processes. It was assessed (1) whether FM theta NFT improves source retrieval and modulates its underlying EEG characteristics and (2) whether this transfer extends over two posttests. Over seven NFT sessions, the training group who trained individual FM theta activity showed greater FM theta increase than an active control group who trained randomly chosen frequency bands. The training group showed better source retrieval in a posttraining session performed 13 days after NFT and their performance increases from pre- to both posttraining sessions were predicted by NFT theta increases. Thus, training-induced enhancement of memory control processes seems to protect newly formed memories from proactive interference of previously learned information. EEG analyses revealed that during pretest both groups showed source memory specific theta activity at frontal and parietal sites. Surprisingly, training-induced improvements in source retrieval tended to be accompanied by less prestimulus FM theta activity, which was predicted by NFT theta change for the training but not the control group, suggesting a more efficient use of memory control processes after training. The present findings provide unique evidence for the enhancement of memory control processes by FM theta NFT.

The effect of shared distinctiveness on source memory: An event-related potential study.

An illusory correlation (IC) is the erroneous perception that two actually uncorrelated categories are correlated. The Shared Distinctiveness Approach (SDA) explains ICs with heightened accessibility of distinctive category combinations in episodic memory. However, empirical evidence for this approach is heterogeneous. In the present event-related potential (ERP) study, we exploited the fact that more distinctive items elicit larger P300 responses than less distinctive items, which potentially predict subsequent memory performance differences for such items. Distinctiveness at encoding was created by presenting words that differed from frequently presented, positive words in valence, font color, or both. We hypothesized that shared distinctiveness (deviation in both color and valence) would lead to an enhanced P300 subsequent memory effect (SME), better source memory performance, and an overestimation of the frequency of shared distinctive items. Behavioral results indicated the presence of shared distinctiveness effects on source memory and frequency estimation. Unexpectedly, memory also was enhanced for positive items in the frequent color. This pattern also was reflected in the P300 for highly positive and negative items. However, shared distinctiveness did not modulate the P300 SME, indicating that the processing of distinctive features might only indirectly contribute to better encoding. This study shows that shared distinctiveness indeed is associated with better source memory and ICs. Because effects were observed for the most frequent and the least frequent category combination, our results imply that the processing of distinctiveness might involve attention allocation to diametrical category combinations, thereby accentuating the differences between the categories.

From fluency to recognition decisions: A broader view of familiarity-based remembering.

The goal of this article is to critically examine current claims and assumptions about the FN400, an event-related potential (ERP) component which has been related to familiarity memory though some uncertainty exists regarding the cognitive processes captured by the FN400. It is proposed that familiarity can be multiply determined and that an important distinction has to be made between a recent-exposure, relative familiarity mechanism indexed by the FN400 and an absolute/baseline familiarity mechanism being reflected by a coincidental but topographically distinct ERP effect. We suggest a broader conceptualization of the memory processes reflected by the FN400 and propose an unexpected fluency-attribution account of familiarity according to which familiarity results from a fast assessment of ongoing processing fluency relative to previous events or current expectations. The computations underlying fluency attribution may be closely related to those characterizing the relative familiarity mechanism underlying the FN400. We also argue that concerted activation of the perirhinal cortex (PrC) and the lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) plays a pivotal role for fluency attributions and the generation of the FN400.