Demonstrations of the influence of the eating environment on food acceptance.

In two independent demonstrations, pre-prepared food was served in different environments: first, identical prepared meals were served in both a training restaurant and in a student cafeteria; second, a prepared main dish was served in a food science laboratory class, and as part of an entire meal in two student cafeterias and in a training restaurant. In the training restaurants and in the student cafeterias, people selected and paid for their meals. The acceptability ratings of the food served varied across the three different environments in the following order: restaurant>laboratory>cafeteria. Differences in acceptance were attributed to contextual effects and the expectations they produce, actual product differences, and a number of possible covariates. Ratings of sensory attributes tended to mirror the acceptability effects. The difficulty of comparing contexts within actual food service systems is discussed.

The effects of variety and monotony on food acceptance and intake at a midday meal.

Across-meal variety was operationally defined as the varying of a midday meal, whereas monotony was defined as serving the same midday meal for 5 days. Acceptance and intake of the meal declined in the monotony week and did not decline in the variety week. Acceptance levels decreased but remained high, demonstrating that monotony can occur with acceptable foods. Intake increased on the final day of testing under the variety condition. The potato product was resistant to monotony for both acceptance and intake, as has been shown for other staple foods. Green beans were sensitive to monotony. Correlations between acceptance and intake were highly significant; they were moderate in the variety condition (averaging r = 0.5) and lower in the monotony condition, suggesting how variety impacts normal varied eating.

Role of sensory and cognitive information in the enhancement of certainty and liking for novel and familiar foods.

Expected and actual liking for novel and familiar foods were examined under various conditions of sensory and verbal information with 121 subjects who differed in food neophobia. The possible mediating roles of uncertainty about product identity and resemblance to familiar foods were also investigated. Subjects were divided into three verbal information groups (no information; product name; ingredient and use information) balanced for neophobia, age and gender. All groups rated test samples under three sensory conditions: (1) appearance only, (2) appearance and smell and (3) appearance, smell and taste. Neophilics rated novel foods more favorably than did neophobics. Accumulating sensory experience (appearance, smell, taste) decreased liking for novel foods but increased liking for familiar foods. Verbal information generally increased liking for all samples. Liking and certainty of product identity were curvilinearly related for novel foods, but linearly related for familiar foods. Liking for products judged to closely resemble the test product predicted up to 64% of the variability in expected and actual liking. Eight weeks later, subjects rated one of the two novel foods higher than in the first exposure, but no other exposure effects were observed. Our data suggest that information (possibly via reduced uncertainty), resemblance to more familiar foods, and exposure contribute to reducing initially negative responses to novel foods; furthermore, neophobia decreases liking for novel foods similarly at all levels of sensory input (visual, smell and taste).

Effect of effort on meal selection and meal acceptability in a student cafeteria.

Past laboratory and field studies show that the effort necessary to obtain food acts as a determinant of food selection and consumption. Two studies examined the impact of increasing the effort needed to obtain candy or potato chips on selection in a normal lunch setting. In the first study, food selection, acceptance and intake were obtained during the first week baseline and under the effort manipulation during the second week. With increased effort, candy selection dropped dramatically in week 2. Subjects substituted items from the desert, fruit and accessory food groups. In the second study, food selection and acceptance were measured during a 2-week baseline, a 3-week effort period, and a 3-week recovery period. With increased effort, potato chip selection dropped dramatically and only partially recovered in the last phase. Subjects substituted items from the starch food group. These results demonstrate that changes in the effort needed to obtain food can have a nutritional impact in an actual eating situation and could be an important part of a healthy eating strategy.

Effects of adding an Italian theme to a restaurant on the perceived ethnicity, acceptability, and selection of foods.

We investigated whether a change in the perceived ethnicity of a food can be produced without manipulating the food item itself, and if that change in ethnic perception is accompanied by a change in acceptability and food selection behavior. Italian and British foods were offered in a British restaurant for four days. Foods were offered for 2 days under control conditions, when the restaurant was decorated as usual. The identical foods then were offered in the restaurant for 2 more days under experimental conditions, when ethnic names were used on the menu to describe foods, and the restaurant was decorated with an Italian theme. Perceived ethnicity and acceptability of items were rated by customers each day, and item selection was tracked. The Italian theme increased selection of pasta and dessert items, and decreased the selection of fish. The Italian theme also increased the perceived Italian ethnicity of British pasta items, fish and veal, and increased the perceived Italian ethnicity of the meal overall. These findings show that changes in perceived ethnicity and food selection can be accomplished without altering food items, but merely by manipulating the environment, and may imply a unique strategy for increasing perceived menu variety.

Methodology and theory in human eating research.

Current research in human eating is assessed from the perspective of current research methods which stress laboratory research, the use of artificial foods rather than real meals, shorter term studies, animal models, and abnormal eating models and an emphasis on sensory and physiological factors rather than social, cultural and contextual factors. The proposal is made to refocus more human eating research on real people eating real foods in real eating situations.

Eating in combat: a survey of U.S. Marines.

A survey of U.S. Marines was conducted in order to investigate the effect of combat, a highly stressful situation, on eating behavior. The results indicate that Marines reduced their food intake, especially during their first combat experience. The principle reason cited for reduced consumption during combat was the lack of time to eat and prepare food. However, fear was important in accounting for reduced consumption during the marines' initial exposure to combat. The results are consistent with other laboratory and survey findings that stress leads to a reduction in food intake.

An analysis of the role of stimulus removal in taste adaptation by means of simulated drinking.

Human multiple sip drinking was simulated by repeated, alternate application of a NaCl solution and a second liquid to the anterior portion of the tongue. Judged intensity of the NaCl solution remained constant during alternation with artificial saliva, increased during alternation with water, and decreased during alternation with an identical NaCl solution or with no second liquid. Relative change in concentration on the tongue may determine constancy, facilitation, or adaptation during drinking.

Sex and race differences in food preferences of military personnel.

The food preferences and selections of military personnel were studied to determine the effects of race and sex on food habits and to provide recommendations for menu planning. A food preference survey for 200 foods was administered to 653 personnel and a Food Selection Questionnaire to 1,719 personnel. Food preferences and selections were analyzed for the overall sample, for the two variables of race and sex, and for the four subsamples of white men, white women, black men, and black women. There were food preference differences among all of these groups for highly preferred, moderately preferred, and disliked foods. Women more highly preferred vegetables, salads, and fruit; tossed green salad was the most preferred food of both white and black women. In contrast, men never preferred a starch, a vegetable, or a salad more than women. Many of men's preferences were meat-containing; grilled steak was the most preferred food for both white and black men. Blacks preferred and selected fruit and fruit juices, confirming prior studies. Race could be predicted from food preference data in 77% of cases and sex in 70% of cases, demonstrating the generalizability of average food preferences for these subgroups.

Validity of a food frequency questionnaire for the determination of individual food intake.

The validity of a food frequency questionnaire for dietary assessment was tested with 31 college students living and dining in a dormitory. A food frequency questionnaire was mailed to participants requesting them to estimate their usual intake of specific food items. Actual food consumption was determined at each meal with self-report forms. These forms required participants to indicate foods chosen at that meal. To test the validity of the frequency questionnaire, regression equations were calculated for each individual using the frequency questionnaire data as the independent variable (X) and actual intake data as the dependent variable (Y). Eighty-four percent of the r values were greater than 0.50 and 55% were greater than 0.71. All were significant at the 0.002 level or below. As an alternative test of validity, the percentage of over- and underestimation of each food group was also assessed. Foods which are often major components of a meal (eg, flesh foods) were estimated with greater accuracy than those foods which could be considered accessory (eg, nuts or seeds). While it appears that a large percentage of individuals could accurately estimate their intake with this technique, some individuals were unsuccessful in doing so. Further research is needed to identify individual characteristics which may predict success with this technique.

Validity of telephoned diet recalls and records for assessment of individual food intake.

Six methods of assessing individual food intake reported by telephone were compared for accuracy. A sample of 107 students eating in a dormitory dining hall was used. Two 7-day and four 3-day diet records were reported by telephone to either an interviewer or an answering device; and fourteen 6-h recalls and seven 24-h recalls were obtained by an interviewer over the telephone. To examine validity, the investigators observed respondents' intake for 28 days. Food item agreement scores comparing observed and reported data were calculated. Seven-day records were most accurate (87% food item agreement); 3-day records and 6-h recalls were equivalent (75%); and 24-h recalls were least accurate (69%). There were no significant difference in accuracy of reporting records to an interviewer versus a recording device, but respondents preferred the interviewer. Results of telephoned reporting compare favorably with personal interview techniques used by other investigators, indicating that telephoned methods should be further explored in community settings.

Food preferences of enlisted personnel in the Armed Forces.

A food preference survey, consisting of 378 food names, was administered to approximately 3,900 personnel of the U.S. Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corps. The survey required the respondent to indicate how much he liked each food (hedonic scale) and how often he wanted it served (preferred frequency scale). Overall, food preferences showed relative popularity of beverages, breakfast foods, and entrées, unpopularity of soups and vegetables, and moderate popularity of the other food classes. Items of particularly high or low preference are statistically identified within each food class. The collection and presentation of these data are intended to assist menu planners of the Armed Forces, as well as others interested in this age group (young men under twenty-six years of age.