Another way to measure balanced time perspective: Development and validation of the Time Perspective Inventory.

The existing scales for measuring balanced time perspective (BTP) have limitations, such as poor-fitting structures or a complex calculation method. Based on previous studies, we conceptualize BTP as an individual's overall positive outlook on the past and future and mindfully living in the present. The present study aimed to develop the Time Perspective Inventory (TPI) for Chinese adults, determine its psychometric properties, and examine a simple calculation method for generating a score to represent BTP. In study 1, a 7-factor structure of TPI - Past Positive, Past Negative, Mindful Present, Present Hedonistic, Present Excessively Task-oriented, Future Positive, and Future Negative - was established through exploratory (sample 1, N = 529) and confirmatory (sample 2, N = 577) factor analyses. Findings supported the internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and criterion-related validity of the TPI. We proposed using the score difference between positive time perspectives and negative time perspectives to calculate the BTP. Findings showed that the correlations between BTP and subjective well-being indicators and anxiety were higher than among individual dimensions of TPI. Study 2 (sample 3, N = 713) compared the effects of the TPI and the Chinese version of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI-C) on well-being indicators and anxiety. Results indicated that the variance of life satisfaction, positive affect, negative affect, and anxiety explained by BTP measured with TPI was higher than deviation from BTP (DBTP) measured with ZTPI-C. Together, the TPI yields reliable and valid BTP scores among Chinese adults.

Brief report: Revealing the nuance: Examining approaches for research with adolescents who identify with multiple racial/ethnic groups.

INTRODUCTION: Increasing racial/ethnic diversity in the United States calls for methodological approaches that capture participants who identify with multiple racial/ethnic groups. Existing approaches are oriented toward large samples (N > 500); yet, we do not know how effective these approaches are with more common smaller convenience samples. We explored how several approaches were associated with the sample distribution of racial/ethnic groups and ethnic identity using a small convenience sample. METHODS: In 2017, 320 U.S. adolescents (Mage = 16.04 years, SDage = 1.33; 59% female) responded to an open-ended question regarding their racial/ethnic group(s) in a cross-sectional survey. Seventy-five (23%) adolescents identified with multiple racial/ethnic groups. Remaining adolescents identified solely with the Asian/Hawaiian Native/Pacific Islander (19%), Black/African American (3%), European American (21%), Latinx (34%), or Native American/Alaska Native (<1%) group. RESULTS: Three approaches for adolescents with multiple racial/ethnic groups were employed. Findings indicated that the sample distributions differed across the approaches. The greatest differences were shown for Black/African American, Native American/Alaska Native, and Other Race/Ethnicity groups. Descriptively, ethnic identity also differed across the approaches. For example, multiracial/ethnic adolescents reported greater ethnic identity-exploration than their European American counterparts in one approach than in others. CONCLUSIONS: Researchers should carefully consider approaches to research with adolescents who identify with multiple racial/ethnic groups given implications for the literature. This study demonstrates the critical need to further develop approaches for capturing the complexity of race/ethnicity.

The Hebrew version of the adolescent and adult time inventory-time attitudes scales (AATI-TA): a validation study.

In the present study, we examined the construct validity of scores on the Hebrew version of the Adolescent and Adult Time Inventory-Time Attitudes Scale (AATI-TA). The AATI-TA was translated into Hebrew by bilingual speakers, using the back-translation method. Participants included 452 young adults (Mage = 22.47, SDage = 1.98, 51.5% female). Several measures of psychological well-being were used to establish convergent validity, including scales assessing self-esteem, life satisfaction, and optimism, and depressive, anxiety, and somatic symptoms. Internal consistency estimates for AATI-TA scores were high and confirmatory factor analyses supported the six-factor structure. Correlational analyses indicated the expected relationships between time attitudes and measures of psychological well-being, providing convergent validity support for the AATI-TA scores. The findings of this study support the use of the Hebrew version of the AATI-TA in further studies about time attitudes.

An Examination of Multidimensional Time Perspective and Mental Health Outcomes.

We examined the associations between time perspective and mental health outcomes (N = 337; Mage = 22.74, SDage = 5.59; 76% female). Time perspective included multiple dimensions (feelings, frequency, orientation, and relation) and time periods (past, present, and future). Mental health outcomes included depressive symptoms, anxiety, and rumination. To demonstrate the reliability of the time perspective scales, test-retest analyses were completed. Multivariate analyses showed that (a) positive feelings about time were associated with lower anxiety; (b) negative feelings about time were associated with greater anxiety; and (c) more frequent thoughts about the past were associated with greater depressive symptoms and anxiety. Associations remained when controlling for anxiety and depressive symptoms, respectively. Moreover, (a) positive feelings about time were associated with lower rumination; (b) negative feelings about time were associated with greater rumination; and (c) more frequent thoughts about the past were associated with greater rumination. Time perspective scales yielded scores that were moderate to high in test-retest reliability. Findings demonstrate the value of examining separate time perspective dimensions and time periods. Results highlight the role of time perspective in mental health interventions for adults.

Awe, curiosity, and multicultural experience.

INTRODUCTION: Despite broad consensus about multicultural experience's benefits, there is a lack of research on the antecedents to multicultural experiences. Research has indicated that awe shifts attention away from the self toward larger entities, which could include elements of other cultures. METHODS: Four studies (N = 2915) tested whether trait, daily, and induced awe promoted multicultural experience. RESULTS: Studies 1-2 (adolescents, young, middle, and older adults) showed that trait awe predicted greater multicultural identity and experience independent of other positive emotions and openness. Study 3 (students & adults in U.S. & Malaysia) demonstrated that daily awe predicted more daily multicultural experience independent of yesterday's multicultural experience. These results were explained by trait and daily curiosity. Study 4 (adults) found that induction of awe increased state multicultural identity and experience via state curious emotions and then state curious personality. CONCLUSION: We found that experiencing more awe can be a tool for enhancing the multicultural experience. The discussion focuses on the implications for future research on awe and multicultural experiences.

Time buffers teasing and lessens tobacco use: The moderating role of time perspective on bullying victimization and tobacco use in adolescents.

Bullying victimization is a prevalent and harmful experience for adolescents and is positively associated with risky behaviors, including tobacco use. We investigated a potential moderator for the associations between bullying victimization and tobacco use, namely time perspective, which refers to thoughts about time. Bullied adolescents may focus on past events more than present or future events, which could lead to less adaptive coping mechanisms in response to stress, such as tobacco use. Multiple time perspective dimensions and time periods (past, present, and future) were examined. Time orientation refers to the relative emphasis placed on a time period. Time relation refers to the perceived relationship among the time periods. Bullying victimization and tobacco use were self-reported. Participants included 758 adolescents (Mage = 15.81, SDage = 1.22; 54% female). Multiple linear regression analysis indicated that bullying victimization was positively associated with tobacco use. Moderated regression analyses indicated that perceiving all time periods as important (time orientation) and interrelated (time relation) buffered the positive association between bullying victimization and tobacco use in adolescents. Analyses controlled for demographics, sensation seeking, and stress. Results suggest that future research should examine the viability of time perspective-based interventions for bullying victimization and tobacco use in adolescents.

Time Perspective and Substance Use: An Examination Across Three Adolescent Samples.

Time perspective is conceptualized as a multidimensional construct that assesses individuals' feelings and thoughts about the past, present, and future. The current study examined relationships between feelings (time attitudes) and thoughts (time orientation) about time and substance use behaviors across three adolescent samples. Participants included a high-risk sample of adjudicated youth (N=124; M age =15.54, SD=1.69; 51.61% female) and two general population school samples (N=777; M age =15.82, SD=1.23; 53.41% female; N=1873; M age =15.87, SD=1.28; 52.22% female). Cross-sectional survey data were collected from samples in schools during 2010, 2016, and 2011, respectively. Poisson and negative binomial regression analyses indicated that overall, more positive feelings about time were associated with fewer substances used and, conversely, more negative feelings about time were associated with more substances used. These findings were particularly salient for participants with stronger positive and negative feelings toward the past and present time periods. Further, across the three samples, adolescents with a balanced time orientation (i.e., equal emphasis on all three time periods) generally reported less substance use than individuals who emphasized only one or two time periods. Findings highlight relationships between time perspective dimensions and substance use across diverse samples and illustrate opportunities for adapting time perspective-based substance use interventions for adolescents.

Time perspective and amnestic mild cognitive impairment.

OBJECTIVE: We examined time perspective in patients with amnesic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI). Prior research has shown that aMCI is associated with difficulties in experiencing time duration and succession. However, this line of inquiry has not been extended to time perspective. We examined associations between aMCI and multiple dimensions of time perspective including perceived orientations and relationships among the past, present, and future. METHOD: Thirty aMCI patients and thirty-three healthy controls participated. Measures were the Time Orientation Scale (TOS), the Time Relation Scale (TRS), and the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI), as well as a comprehensive neuropsychological evaluation. RESULTS: The TRS was associated with aMCI. Patients with aMCI were more likely to perceive that time was unrelated than the healthy older adults. Among patients with aMCI, an unrelated time perspective was associated with poorer performance in executive function measures. However, aMCI was not associated with the TOS or the ZTPI. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with aMCI have difficulty in perceiving relationships among the past, present, and future. This could be the consequence of deficits in executive functions. This research suggests that patients with aMCI may have limited understanding for how their current behaviours are related to both their past and future.

Thinking about the past, present, and future: Time perspective and self-esteem in adolescents, young adults, middle-aged adults, and older adults.

We examined time perspective and self-esteem in adolescents, young adults, middle-aged adults, and older adults. Time perspective was measured with scales that assess relative orientations and relationships among the past, present, and future. Age effects were examined with standard analytic strategies to determine categorical differences between age groups and with new statistical techniques designed to show continuous age patterns. Findings indicated that (1) thinking about the future was greatest for adolescents and young adults and lowest for middle-aged and older adults, and thinking about the present increased across ages; (2) fewer adolescents and middle-aged participants perceived that the time periods were interrelated compared to younger and older adults; and (3) across ages, a greater emphasis towards the past compared to other time periods was associated with lower self-esteem, whereas emphasizing the present and the future jointly was associated with higher self-esteem.

Time among the taunted: The moderating effect of time perspective on bullying victimization and self-esteem in adolescents.

INTRODUCTION: Bullying victimization is detrimental to psychosocial wellbeing in adolescents. It is paramount that factors that mitigate the harmful effects of bullying victimization be identified. Time perspective may be a potential mechanism. Thus, we examined the moderating effect of time perspective on the associations between traditional and cyberbullying victimization (being bullied in person and on electronic media) and self-esteem in adolescents. Time perspective refers to feelings and thoughts about the past, present, and future. We examined time feelings (positive and negative feelings about the time periods), time frequency (frequency of thoughts about the time periods), and time relation (the perceived relationship among the time periods). METHODS: Two cross-sectional survey studies were conducted. Study 1 examined traditional bullying victimization in 721 American adolescents (Mage = 15.84, SD = 1.20; 57% female). Study 2 examined cyberbullying victimization in 190 American adolescents (Mage = 15.83, SD = 1.28; 59% female). RESULTS: Hierarchical linear regression analyses indicated that time perspective dimensions moderated the associations between high levels of traditional and cyberbullying victimization and self-esteem in adolescents who (a) had strong positive and weak negative feelings about the present and future (time feelings); (b) thought a little about the past (time frequency); or (c) perceived all time periods as interrelated (time relation). CONCLUSIONS: Time perspective dimensions (feelings, frequency, and relation) moderated the associations between traditional and cyberbullying victimization and self-esteem in adolescents. Findings have implications for bullying victimization prevention efforts. Findings also demonstrate the multidimensional and multi-temporal qualities of time perspective.

Time Perspective Constructs in Albanian and Italian Adolescents: Exploratory Analyses.

Time perspective is an important correlate of developmental outcomes in adolescence, and research has highlighted the importance of assessing the past, the present, and the future. However, there are few instruments that assess all three time periods. In the current study, we examined the responses of Italian and Albanian adolescents on the time frequency, time orientation, time relation, and time attitude subscales of the Adolescent and Adult Time Inventory. Participants consisted of two samples of adolescents-246 Italians and 312 Albanians-who completed translated versions of the Adolescent and Adult Time Inventory. Italian and Albanian adolescents had similar responses to time frequency and time attitudes but differed in time orientation and time relation. Additionally, psychometric evidence supported the internal consistency and structural validity of scores on five of the six time attitude subscales-Past Positive, Past Negative, Present Positive, Present Negative, and Future Positive-but provided less support for Future Negative subscale scores. Time attitude scores showed strong invariance across countries. Comparisons of time attitude mean scores in this study with time attitude means in samples from Germany, Japan, Italy, New Zealand, Turkey, and the United States revealed similarities and differences. Finally, time constructs did not have substantial associations with risky behaviors or seatbelt use. The findings suggest that the Adolescent and Adult Time Inventory can be used in cross-cultural research on time perspective and may help us understand adolescents in these contexts.

Time Attitude Profiles and Health-Related Behaviors: Validation of a Spanish Version of the Adolescent and Adult Time Inventory-Time Attitudes (AATI-TA).

Temporal psychology constructs are an individual difference variable related to behavioral outcomes. Recent research has shown that there are different time attitude profiles based on different configurations of the six Adolescent and Adult Time Inventory-Time Attitude (AATI-TA) subscales. The objective of this study was to analyze the psychometric properties of AATI-TA scores in Uruguay and determine the existence of temporal profiles in this context. Participants were a convenience sample of 446 (36.5% males) adults in Uruguay with a mean age of 34.53 years (SD = 13.17, range 18-75 years). Participants completed a sociodemographic questionnaire, the AATI-TA, and questionnaires on intentions, behaviors, and attitudes towards healthy food consumption and physical activity. AATI-TA scores had good reliabilities (> .70). The six-factor solution was supported and invariance by gender and age group was established. We identified five profiles - Resilients, High Positives, Negatives, Present Negatives, and Moderate Positives - which were associated differently with healthy food consumption patterns. Negative profiles were related to higher levels of unhealthy food consumption.

Time attitude profiles and health-related behaviors: validation of a Spanish version of the Adolescent and Adult Time Inventory-Time Attitudes (AATI-TA)

Temporal psychology constructs are an individual difference variable related to behavioral outcomes. Recent research has shown that there are different time attitude profiles based on different configurations of the six Adolescent and Adult Time Inventory-Time Attitude (AATI-TA) subscales. The objective of this study was to analyze the psychometric properties of AATI-TA scores in Uruguay and determine the existence of temporal profiles in this context. Participants were a convenience sample of 446 (36.5% males) adults in Uruguay with a mean age of 34.53 years (SD = 13.17, range 18-75 years). Participants completed a sociodemographic questionnaire, the AATI-TA, and questionnaires on intentions, behaviors, and attitudes towards healthy food consumption and physical activity. AATI-TA scores had good reliabilities (> .70). The six-factor solution was supported and invariance by gender and age group was established. We identified five profiles - Resilients, High Positives, Negatives, Present Negatives, and Moderate Positives - which were associated differently with healthy food consumption patterns. Negative profiles were related to higher levels of unhealthy food consumption

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Time perspective, sports club membership, and physical self-concept among adolescents: A person-centered approach.

INTRODUCTION: Time perspective is defined as thoughts and feelings about the past, present, and future and is theorized to underlie human behavior. Prior research has shown relationships among time perspective and academic achievement, substance use, and risky-driving. In this study, time perspective was extended to sports club membership and physical self-concept among adolescents. METHODS: Time perspective was assessed with a scale that measures positive and negative feelings about the past, present, and future. Latent time attitude profiles were generated with data that included sports club membership and physical self-concept. Participants were German (N = 901; 46.2% female), Luxembourgian (N = 661; 46.7% female), and Spanish (N = 789; 49.0% female) adolescents (12-18 years-old). RESULTS: Latent profile analyses indicated that across the three samples the same number and type of profiles were observed: Ambivalent, Balanced, Optimistic, Past Negative, and Positive. Time attitude profiles were related to sports club membership and physical self-concept. Adolescents with positive attitudinal profiles were more engaged in sports clubs and reported a higher physical self-concept than adolescents in negative attitudinal profiles. CONCLUSIONS: Time perspective was conceptualized as time attitudes and operationalized as positive and negative feelings about the past, present, and future. Results showed that five latent time attitudes profiles were observed and that profile membership was associated with sports club membership and physical self-concept. These associations were demonstrated with three independent samples. Findings were discussed in light of implications for intervention programs that use time perspective to promote physical health among adolescents.

The Japanese Version of the Adolescent Time Inventory-Time Attitudes (ATI-TA) Scale: Internal Consistency, Structural Validity, and Convergent Validity.

In this study, we translated the Adolescent Time Inventory-Time Attitudes (ATI-TA) scale into Japanese and examined the internal consistency and structural and convergent validity of ATI-TA scores in a sample of 383 Japanese high school students aged 15 to 18 years. The ATI-TA consists of six subscales assessing two valences (positive and negative) for each of three time periods (past, present, and future). Internal consistency estimates for scores on the ATI-TA were over .79. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that a six-factor model yielded the best fit to scores. Correlations among ATI-TA scores, time attitudes assessed by the semantic differential method, educational career planning, and self-esteem were consistent with our hypotheses. Our results provide evidence that scores on the Japanese version of the ATI-TA are reliable and valid, and thus potentially useful for research in this cultural context.

A Construct Matures: Time Perspective's Multidimensional, Developmental, and Modifiable Qualities.

Human development approaches to time perspective that are life-span and include multiple developmental periods are largely lacking in the literature even though the topic has received wide attention from many scholars. Extant studies have focused on specific age groups or have compared younger and older adults. This introduction addresses these issues and provides on overview of the multidimensional, developmental, and modifiable qualities of time perspective. The four contributions focus on distinct age groups including adolescents, young adults, middle-aged adults, and older adults. The papers included several conceptualizations of time perspective, diverse participants, and age-specific outcomes. Collectively, this work sets the stage for the next era of age-related research on time perspective.

A balanced time perspective: Is it an exercise in empiricism, and does it relate meaningfully to health and well-being outcomes?

Time perspective research assesses the degree to which thoughts and feelings about the past, present and future influence behaviour, and a balanced time perspective profile has been posited as being ideal. Although this area of research has seen a move towards person-centred analyses, using either cluster analyses or a deviation from balanced time perspective (DBTP) approach, there are a number of theoretical and methodological issues that must be addressed. Using data from diverse samples in four countries, the present study used both cluster analyses and the DBTP approach to assess how cluster membership and DBTP scores related to a range of health and well-being outcomes. As in previous studies, a balanced profile only emerged once in cluster analyses, and positive-oriented profiles were associated with optimal outcomes. The study also found evidence of a relationship between DBTP scores and scores on well-being indicators. However, results gained after manipulating the DBTP equation in two different ways again indicated that higher than expected positive past and present or past and future scores were responsible for the positive outcomes. As such, these findings raise concerns regarding the use of the DBTP construct within clinical settings.

Ethnic Identity, Stereotype Threat, and Perceived Discrimination Among Native American Adolescents.

In this study, ethnic identity, stereotype threat, and perceived discrimination were examined in relationship to academic achievement and hopelessness in a sample of 129 Native American adolescents aged 14-19. Regression analyses with self-reported data indicated two major findings. Ethnic identity interacted with stereotype threat to predict academic achievement, where participants with high ethnic identity and low stereotype threat scores reported higher grade point averages. Ethnic identity also interacted with perceived discrimination to predict hopelessness, where participants with low ethnic identity and high perceived discrimination scores were higher in hopelessness. Findings are discussed in light of the joint role that ethnic identity and perceived bias have in relationship to developmental outcomes in Native American adolescents.

Introducing an instrument to assess time orientation and time relation in adolescents.

We report on two studies that examine new instruments that assess time orientation and time relation in adolescents. These concepts refer to how individuals think about the past, the present, and the future, with time orientation defined as the emphasis one gives toward each time period and time relation defined as the degree one perceives that the time periods are related to one another. Study 1 showed that time orientation predicted academic achievement and self-esteem and time relation predicted academic achievement and hope. Study 2, which included revised versions of the instruments, replicated most findings and demonstrated that both time orientation and time relation were related to engaging in risky behaviors. As hypothesized, in both studies, there were no gender differences in time orientation or time relation. These instruments provide a new way to assess how adolescents' perceive time and how this relates to their development and behavior.

Demographic group differences in adolescents' time attitudes.

In the present study, we examined demographic differences in time attitudes in a sample of 293 adolescents. Time attitudes were measured using the Adolescent Time Attitude Scale (Mello & Worrell, 2007; Worrell, Mello, & Buhl, 2011), which assesses positive and negative attitudes toward the past, the present, and the future. Generally, African Americans and Asian Americans reported higher scores for negative time attitudes and lower scores for positive time attitudes than European Americans and Latinos, with medium sizes. Adolescents in the low socioeconomic status group reported a less favorable evaluation of their past than middle and high SES peers, but there were no meaningful differences in time attitudes by gender. Findings indicate that middle SES adolescents, high school juniors and seniors, Latinos, and European Americans had higher representation in positive time attitude clusters (i.e., Positives and Balanced) than high SES adolescents, high school freshmen and sophomores, and African Americans.