Substituted hippurates and hippurate analogs as substrates and inhibitors of peptidylglycine alpha-hydroxylating monooxygenase (PHM).

Peptidyl alpha-hydroxylating monooxygenase (PHM) functions in vivo towards the biosynthesis of alpha-amidated peptide hormones in mammals and insects. PHM is a potential target for the development of inhibitors as drugs for the treatment of human disease and as insecticides for the management of insect pests. We show here that relatively simple ground state analogs of the PHM substrate hippuric acid (C(6)H(5)-CO-NH-CH(2)-COOH) inhibit the enzyme with K(i) values as low as 0.5microM. Substitution of sulfur atom(s) into the hippuric acid analog increases the affinity of PHM for the inhibitor. Replacement of the acetylglycine moiety, -CO-NH-CH(2)-COOH with an S-(thioacetyl)thioglycolic acid moiety, -CS-S-CH(2)-COOH, yields compounds with the highest PHM affinity. Both S-(2-phenylthioacetyl)thioglycolate and S-(4-ethylthiobenzoyl)thioglycolic acid inhibit the proliferation of cultured human prostate cancer cells at concentrations >100-fold excess of their respective K(i) values. Comparison of K(i) values between mammalian PHM and insect PHM shows differences in potency suggesting that a PHM-based insecticide with limited human toxicity can be developed.

Characterization of regulatory intronic and exonic sequences involved in alternative splicing of scavenger receptor class B gene.

Scavenger receptor class B type I (SR-BI) is a major receptor of the high-density lipoprotein that mediates cholesterol efflux and reverse cholesterol transport. Alternative splicing of the scavenger receptor class B (SR-B) gene is observed and different splice forms, SR-BI and scavenger receptor class B type II (SR-BII), have been shown to function and localize in distinct ways. We have previously shown that SR-B alternative splicing regulation is associated with splicing factor ASF/SF2. In this study, using a SR-B minigene as a model, we determined the critical regulatory regions in the upstream intron, intron 11, by serial deletion and mutation analyses. We also further characterized the regulatory elements in intron 11 as well as in the skipped exon, exon 12. Moreover, we studied the interactions of these elements with the splicing factor ASF/SF2. This study provides new insights into the mechanism of SR-B splicing and it is important for further study on the mechanism of SR-B alternative splicing regulation, such as its regulation by estrogen.

Prostaglandin F2alpha suppresses rat steroidogenic acute regulatory protein expression via induction of Yin Yang 1 protein and recruitment of histone deacetylase 1 protein.

Prostaglandin F2alpha (PGF2alpha) plays a pivotal role in ovarian luteolysis by inhibiting the expression of steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein, leading to a decrease in intracellular cholesterol transport and luteal steroid production. Previously we have demonstrated that the transcription factor Yin Yang 1 (YY1) bound to three regions in the StAR promoter in vitro and repressed promoter activity. This study further defined the YY1-mediated PGF2alpha effect on the inhibition of StAR protein expression through YY1 interaction with a single region in the StAR promoter in vivo. PGF2alpha consistently suppressed StAR mRNA and protein expression in cultured luteal cells in a dose-dependent manner. PGF2alpha also enhanced YY1 protein expression and binding to its cis-element in a time-dependent pattern that preceded the decline in StAR protein levels. The StAR promoter region bound by YY1 was also associated with histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1). PGF2alpha treatment promoted HDAC1 binding to and suppressed the histone H3 acetylation in this region. On the contrary, YY1 knockdown decreased HDAC1 binding, increased histone H3 acetylation, enhanced StAR protein expression, and negated PGF2alpha effect on StAR protein expression. Luciferase assays showed that YY1 overexpression inhibited StAR promoter activity and the addition of a HDAC inhibitor, trichostatin A, abrogated the effect of YY1. Trichostatin A-treated luteal cells displayed increased StAR protein expression. These data indicate that PGF2alpha enhances a direct YY1/StAR promoter interaction and the recruitment of HDAC1 to the promoter, thereby preventing transcriptional activation of the StAR gene.

Regulation of alternative splicing of liver scavenger receptor class B gene by estrogen and the involved regulatory splicing factors.

The scavenger receptor class B isoforms (SR-B) type I and type II mediate the selective uptake of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and promote reverse cholesterol transport, an important atherosclerosis protection mechanism, in the liver. Previously it was shown that the hepatic expression of SR-BI and SR-BII is regulated by estrogen. In the present study, we demonstrate that estrogen differentially regulates expression of the glycosylated and nonglycosylated forms of SR-BI and SR-BII in rat liver and hepatic cells. We report that estrogen mainly induces the down-regulation of glycosylated SR-BI and the up-regulation of nonglycosylated SR-BII. To study how estrogen regulates expression of the SR-B isoforms, we constructed a SR-B minigene containing minimal genomic sequences and were able to demonstrate that estrogen directly regulates the pre-mRNA alternative splicing of the exogenously expressed SR-B minigene in hepatic cells. Furthermore, we showed that the overexpression of splicing factors alternative splicing factor/splicing factor 2, Transformer (Tra)-2alpha, and Tra2beta changes the splicing pattern of SR-B dramatically, whereas other splicing factors, such as heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein-G, SC-35, and arginine/serine-rich p40, had no effect. We also demonstrate that estrogen regulates Tra2beta expression levels in liver cells. These studies suggest that estrogen may regulate SR-B isoform expression at both the RNA splicing and posttranslational modification levels and that, for alternative splicing regulation, estrogen may function by regulating the expression of the splicing factors alternative splicing factor/splicing factor 2, Tra2alpha, and especially Tra2beta.

Oleic acid derived metabolites in mouse neuroblastoma N18TG2 cells.

Oleamide is an endogenous sleep-inducing lipid that has been isolated from the cerebrospinal fluid of sleep-deprived mammals. Oleamide is the best-understood member of the primary fatty acid amide family. One key unanswered question regarding oleamide and all other primary acid amides is the pathway by which these molecules are produced. One proposed pathway involves oleoyl-CoA and N-oleoylglycine as intermediates: oleic acid --> oleoyl-CoA --> N-oleoylglycine --> oleamide. The first and third reactions are known reactions, catalyzed by acyl-CoA synthetase and peptidylglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase (PAM). Oleoyl-CoA formation from oleic acid has been demonstrated in vitro and in vivo while, to date, N-oleoylglycine cleavage to oleamide has been established only in vitro. PAM catalyzes the final step in alpha-amidated peptide biosynthesis, and its proposed role in primary fatty acid amide biosynthesis has been controversial. Mouse neuroblastoma N(18)TG(2) cells are an excellent model system for the study of oleamide biosynthesis because these cells convert [(14)C]-oleic acid to [(14)C]-oleamide and express PAM in a regulated fashion. We report herein that growth of the N(18)TG(2) cells in the presence of [(14)C]-oleic acid under conditions known to stimulate PAM expression generates an increase in [(14)C]-oleamide or in the presence of a PAM inhibitor generates [(14)C]-N-oleoylglycine. This represents the first identification of N-oleoylglycine from a biological source. In addition, N(18)TG(2) cell growth in the presence of N-oleoylglycine yields oleamide. These results strongly indicate that N-oleoylglycine is an intermediate in oleamide biosynthesis and provide further evidence that PAM does have a role in primary fatty acid amide production in vivo.

Glutathione, S-substituted glutathiones, and leukotriene C4 as substrates for peptidylglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase.

The C-terminal alpha-amide moiety of most peptide hormones arises by the posttranslational cleavage of a glycine-extended precursor in a reaction catalyzed by bifunctional peptidylglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase (PAM). Glutathione and the S-alkylated glutathiones have a C-terminal glycine and are, thus, potential substrates for PAM. The addition of PAM to glutathione, a series of S-alkylated glutathiones, and leukotriene C(4) results in the consumption of O(2) and the production of the corresponding amidated peptide and glyoxylate. This reaction proceeds in two steps with the intermediate formation of a C-terminal alpha-hydroxyglycine-extended peptide. Amidated glutathione (gammaGlu-Cys-amide) is a relatively poor substrate for glutathione S-transferase with a V/K value that is 1.3% of that for glutathione. Peptide substrates containing a penultimate hydrophobic or sulfur-containing amino acid exhibit the highest (V/K)(app) values for PAM-catalyzed amidation. The S-alkylated glutathiones incorporate both features in the penultimate position with S-decylglutathione having the highest (V/K)(app) of the substrates described in this report.