The factorial structure of executive functions in kindergarten children: an explorative study.

Executive functions (EF) are higher cognitive processes involved in the management of new, complex tasks with changing rules and/or the necessity to inhibit interferences. EF are central for academic success; they are necessary for planning, monitoring, and error detection. For adults, a three-factorial structure is often assumed, with the interrelated factors updating, shifting, and inhibition. Results regarding kindergarten EF are heterogeneous. Studies often do not include a direct comparison between different models. Some results support a unitary EF factor, while there is also evidence for two-factorial models. The present study aims to test four theory-driven models of EF structure in kindergarten age. Data from 175 children in their last year of kindergarten (mean age M = 67.6 months, SD = 6.71; range = 53-86 months) were analyzed with confirmatory factor analyses (CFA). Working memory was measured with complex span tasks (Color Span Backwards, Corsi-Blocks Backwards), inhibition with a Go-/No-Go-task, a Flanker task, a Stroop-task and the HTKS task (Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task). Shifting was operationalized with modified Flanker and HTKS tasks including rule switching. A one-factor model fit best, both for the total sample and for a subsample of older, more age-homogenous children. After model respecification, a two-factor model (inhibition and shifting/updating) fit best. Results support a differentiated EF structure toward the end of kindergarten age, before the transition to school. If results are replicable, they have important implications for the development of EF test batteries and intervention programs for kindergarten children.

Fine motor skill automatization and working memory in children with and without potential fine motor impairments: An explorative study.

AIMS: The present study explored fine motor skill automatization and working memory in kindergarten children with and without potential fine motor impairments. For both groups, lower performance was expected in a cognitive-motor dual-task compared to single-tasks. Children with potential fine motor impairments were expected to show higher dual-task costs (indicating lower automatization) and lower working memory performance compared to children without potential fine motor impairments. METHODS: The sample included 18 kindergarten children (mean age M = 67.17 months, SD = 4.34 months) with potential fine motor impairments (scoring at or below the 9th percentile of the manual dexterity scale of the Movement ABC-2; Petermann, 2011) and 36 children scoring above the 9th percentile of the manual dexterity scale of the Movement ABC-2 (mean age M = 67.56 months; SD = 3.74). All children completed a fine motor task (trail drawing) and a working memory task (digit span backwards) in single- and dual-task conditions. RESULTS: Results showed an overall lower cognitive but not fine motor performance in the dual-task condition compared to the single-task condition. Overall, the group scoring above the 9th percentile showed a lower error-to-length ratio and higher working memory performance than the group with potential fine motor impairments. The dual-task costs did not differ between the groups. CONCLUSIONS: Although the potential fine motor impaired children did not show an automatization deficit, they might be at risk of academic problems due to their lower fine motor and working memory performance. Implications for school and interventions are discussed.

[Effectiveness of a Manual Dexterity Training in German Kindergarten]. / Wirksamkeit eines handkoordinativen Trainings im Vorschulalter.

Effectiveness of a Manual Dexterity Training in German Kindergarten The present study examines effects of a manual dexterity training with cup stacking/speed stacking exercises for children in the last year of German kindergarten. Between pre- and posttest, nine trainings sessions were conducted within two weeks. The training group consisted of N = 20 children, the waiting control group of N = 17 children. Pre- and posttest consisted of the manual dexterity scale of the Movement ABC-2 (Petermann, 2011). Compared to the control group, the training group showed significantly lower pretest scores but higher posttest scores. Results were discussed in the light of need for replications. The importance of early prevention and intervention of motor coordination problems is highlighted.

Executive Functions and Fine Motor Skills in Kindergarten as Predictors of Arithmetic Skills in Elementary School.

The present longitudinal study focused on domain-general predictors of arithmetics in elementary school. The role of executive functions (EFs) and fine motor skills for the prediction of arithmetic skills in 1st/2nd grade was examined. Data from N = 173 kindergarten children were included. Age, socioeconomic status, fluid intelligence, and processing speed were controlled. Regression analyses revealed that fine motor skills predicted arithmetic skills. When EFs were added, fine motor skills did not contribute to the prediction of arithmetic skills. Visuospatial working memory and interference control were significant predictors. Findings indicate an important role of EF as predictors of arithmetic skills.

Motor Coordination and Executive Functions as Early Predictors of Reading and Spelling Acquisition.

The role of motor coordination and executive functions in kindergarten for reading/spelling in 1st/2nd grade was examined in the light of other domain-general predictors. N = 173 children were included in the final analyses. A structural equation model with motor coordination, fluid intelligence, age and self-concept as predictors of reading/spelling fitted well. When EF were included, motor coordination and fluid intelligence were not associated with reading/spelling performance. A final model with EF, age and self-concept fitted best. Findings indicate an important role of EF for the development of reading and spelling and for the link between motor coordination and reading/spelling.

Differential changes in the development of motor coordination and executive functions in children with motor coordination impairments.

Cognitive and motor coordination skills of children with and without motor coordination impairments were examined with a one-year follow-up investigation. Initially, children were between 4 and 6 years old. Age-appropriate tests of executive functions (updating, switching, inhibition, interference control), motor coordination (the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2) and fitness (the Körperkoordinations-Test für Kinder) were administered in two consecutive years. Several background variables (age, socioeconomic status, medical support, clinical interventions, leisure activities) and potential moderators (nonverbal intelligence, reaction time, visual perception) were controlled. The matched sample consisted of 48 control children and 48 children with motor coordination impairments. The children's executive functions dramatically improved during the one-year period. With regard to motor coordination performance, half of the impaired children caught up to the control children's level ("remission group"), while the remaining half showed no improvement ("persisting group"). Compared to the persisting group, the children in the remission group showed markedly better interference control at both measurement points. The correlation between executive functions and motor coordination is significant in the persisting group, but not in the remission group. The results of the study are discussed in the light of the role of executive functions, especially inhibition processes, for the automatization of motor coordination tasks.

The relation between cognitive and motor performance and their relevance for children's transition to school: a latent variable approach.

Both theoretically and empirically there is a continuous interest in understanding the specific relation between cognitive and motor development in childhood. In the present longitudinal study including three measurement points, this relation was targeted. At the beginning of the study, the participating children were 5-6-year-olds. By assessing participants' fine motor skills, their executive functioning, and their non-verbal intelligence, their cross-sectional and cross-lagged interrelations were examined. Additionally, performance in these three areas was used to predict early school achievement (in terms of mathematics, reading, and spelling) at the end of participants' first grade. Correlational analyses and structural equation modeling revealed that fine motor skills, non-verbal intelligence and executive functioning were significantly interrelated. Both fine motor skills and intelligence had significant links to later school achievement. However, when executive functioning was additionally included into the prediction of early academic achievement, fine motor skills and non-verbal intelligence were no longer significantly associated with later school performance suggesting that executive functioning plays an important role for the motor-cognitive performance link.

Development of cognitive skills in children with motor coordination impairments at 12-month follow-up.

The current study presents a 1-year follow-up investigation of the development of executive functions (i.e., inhibition, updating, and shifting) in children with motor coordination impairments. Cognitive and motor coordination skills of children (N = 94) aged between 5 and 7 years with and without motor coordination impairments were compared. A second focus of the study was on pre-academic skills. The results indicate marked stability of motor coordination impairments and persistent executive functioning deficits in motor-impaired children. Inhibition and shifting performance was consistently lower, compared to the children without motor coordination impairments. Moreover, children with motor coordination impairments showed lower pre-academic skills, facing a substantial disadvantage at the beginning of formal schooling. The combined cognitive and motor problems may be the result of an underlying inhibition deficit or a general automation deficit. Implications for intervention are discussed.

[Development and evaluation of a motor coordination training for children in special-needs classes]. / Entwicklung und Evaluation eines Programms zur koordinativen Förderung von Kindern in Einschulungsklassen.

Previous research showed that children in classes with reduced curriculum ("ready for school classes") perform systematically poorer in short-term memory, attention control and motor coordination skills than children in regular classes. Based on these results, a training to improve children's planning, sequencing, and executive control of motor actions was developed. It includes body coordination, (bi-) manual coordination, rhythm and balance. The tasks stress flexibility of action, interference control and focused attention. Training sessions proceed from easy to complex, from action accuracy to speed, and from teacher guidance to children's self monitoring. Over the course of 3 weeks, 53 children were trained daily for 20 mins. In pre- and posttests, motor coordination was assessed with the M-ABC; focused attention, short-term memory performance, and self-concept was tested with paper-pencil and computerized tasks. Half of the children were trained between pre- and posttest, the other half received the training after posttest. Results revealed no global training effects; however, children in the training condition caught up during training in specific cognitive and motor tasks, and trained children showed a more optimistic self-concept. Training effects were pronounced for children with balance problems. The findings are discussed in terms of reasons for the weak training effects, and potential improvements of the training.