National review of acute pain service utilization, models of care, and clinical practices within the Veterans Health Administration.

INTRODUCTION: The Veterans Health Administration (VHA) is the largest healthcare network in the USA and has been a national leader in opioid safety for acute pain management. However, detailed information on the availability and characteristics of acute pain services within its facilities is lacking. We designed this project to assess the current state of acute pain services within the VHA. METHODS: A 50-question electronic survey developed by the VHA national acute pain medicine committee was emailed to anesthesiology service chiefs at 140 VHA surgical facilities within the USA. Data collected were analyzed by facility complexity level and service characteristics. RESULTS: Of the 140 VHA surgical facilities contacted, 84 (60%) completed the survey. Thirty-nine (46%) responding facilities had an acute pain service. The presence of an acute pain service was associated with higher facility complexity level designation. The most common staffing model was 2.0 full-time equivalents, which typically included at least one physician. Services performed most by formal acute pain programs included peripheral nerve catheters, inpatient consult services, and ward ketamine infusions. CONCLUSIONS: Despite widespread efforts to promote opioid safety and improve pain management, the availability of dedicated acute pain services within the VHA is not universal. Higher complexity programs are more likely to have acute pain services, which may reflect differential resource distribution, but the barriers to implementation have not yet been fully explored.

Daring discourse: should acute pain medicine be a stand-alone service?

Acute pain medicine (APM) has been incorporated into healthcare systems in varied manners with some practices implementing a stand-alone acute pain service (APS) staffed by consultants who are not simultaneously providing care in the operating room (OR). In contrast, other practices have developed a concurrent OR-APS model where there is no independent team beyond the intraoperative care providers. There are theoretical advantages of each approach primarily with respect to patient outcomes and financial cost, and there is little evidence to instruct best practice. In this daring discourse, we present two opposing perspectives on whether or not APM should be a stand-alone service. While evidence to guide best practice is limited, our goal is to encourage discussion of the varied APS practice models and research into their impact on outcomes and costs.

Anesthesia residency training in regional anesthesiology and acute pain medicine: a competency-based model curriculum.

The Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education has shifted to competency-based medical education. This educational framework requires the description of educational outcomes based on the knowledge, skills and behaviors expected of competent trainees. It also requires an assessment program to provide formative feedback to trainees as they progress to competency in each outcome. Critical to the success of a curriculum is its practical implementation. This article describes the development of model curricula for anesthesiology residency training in regional anesthesia and acute pain medicine (core and advanced) using a competency-based framework. We further describe how the curricula were distributed through a shared web-based platform and mobile application.

Impact of perioperative pain management on cancer recurrence: an ASRA/ESRA special article.

Cancer causes considerable suffering and 80% of advanced cancer patients experience moderate to severe pain. Surgical tumor excision remains a cornerstone of primary cancer treatment, but is also recognized as one of the greatest risk factors for metastatic spread. The perioperative period, characterized by the surgical stress response, pharmacologic-induced angiogenesis, and immunomodulation results in a physiologic environment that supports tumor spread and distant reimplantation.In the perioperative period, anesthesiologists may have a brief and uniquewindow of opportunity to modulate the unwanted consequences of the stressresponse on the immune system and minimize residual disease. This reviewdiscusses the current research on analgesic therapies and their impact ondisease progression, followed by an evidence-based evaluation of perioperativepain interventions and medications.

Two for One: A Case Report of Intravenous Lipid Emulsion to Treat Local Anesthetic Systemic Toxicity in Term Pregnancy.

Combined spinal-epidural (CSE) analgesia is a frequently used method of labor analgesia. Although it is considered safe and effective, CSE can be complicated by local anesthetic systemic toxicity (LAST), a potentially life-threatening condition. We present a case of LAST that developed in a primigravida 50 minutes after uneventful placement of a CSE. Her symptoms resolved within 10 minutes of administering intralipid emulsion. She subsequently underwent cesarean delivery under spinal anesthesia for failure to progress without sequelae in the mother or infant. LAST in pregnancy can occur at traditionally subthreshold dosing; anesthesiologists must be vigilant to ensure prompt and effective treatment.

Comparison of Outside Versus Inside Brachial Plexus Sheath Injection for Ultrasound-Guided Interscalene Nerve Blocks.

OBJECTIVES: Ultrasound-guided interscalene brachial plexus blocks are commonly used to provide anesthesia for the shoulder and proximal upper extremity. Some reviews identify a sheath that envelops the brachial plexus as a potential tissue plane target, and current editorials in the literature highlight the need to establish precise and reproducible injection targets under ultrasound guidance. We hypothesize that an injection of a local anesthetic inside the brachial plexus sheath during ultrasound-guided interscalene nerve blocks will result in enhanced procedure success and provide a consistent tissue plane target for this approach with a reproducible and characteristic local anesthetic spread pattern. METHODS: Sixty patients scheduled for shoulder surgery with a preoperative interscalene block for postoperative pain management were enrolled in this prospective randomized observer-blinded study. Each patient was randomly assigned to receive a single-shot interscalene block either inside or outside the brachial plexus sheath. RESULTS: The rate of complete motor and sensory blocks of the axillary nerve territory 10 minutes after local anesthetic injection for the inside group was 70% versus 37% for the outside group (P < .05). At all measurement intervals beyond 10 minutes, however, neither group showed a statistically significant difference in complete sensory blockade. The incidence rates of transient paresthesia during needle passage were 6.7% for the outside group and 96.7% for the inside group (P < .05). CONCLUSIONS: Except for faster onset, this prospective randomized trial did not find any advantages to performing an interscalene block inside the brachial plexus sheath. There was a higher incidence of transient paresthesia when injections were performed inside compared to outside the sheath.

Development and Validation of an Assessment of Regional Anesthesia Ultrasound Interpretation Skills.

BACKGROUND: Interpretation of ultrasound images and knowledge of anatomy are essential skills for ultrasound-guided peripheral nerve blocks. Competency-based educational models promoted by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education require the development of assessment tools for the achievement of different competency milestones to demonstrate the longitudinal development of skills that occur during training. METHODS: A rigorous study guided by psychometric principles was undertaken to identify and validate the domains and items in an assessment of ultrasound interpretation skills for regional anesthesia. A survey of residents, academic faculty, and community anesthesiologists, as well as video recordings of experts teaching ultrasound-guided peripheral nerve blocks, was used to develop short video clips with accompanying multiple choice-style questions. Four rounds of pilot testing produced a 50-question assessment that was subsequently administered online to residents, fellows, and faculty from multiple institutions. RESULTS: Test results from 90 participants were analyzed with Item Response Theory model fitting indicating that a 47-item subset of the test fits the model well (P = 0.11). There was a significant linear relation between expected and predicted item difficulty (P < 0.001). Overall test scores increased linearly with higher levels of formal anesthesia training, regional anesthesia training, number of ultrasound-guided blocks performed per year, and a self-rating of regional anesthesia skill (all P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: This study provides evidence for the reliability, content validity, and construct validity of a 47-item multiple choice-style online test of ultrasound interpretation skills for regional anesthesia, which can be used as an assessment of competency milestone achievement in anesthesiology training.

Anesthetic Implications of Ebola Patient Management: A Review of the Literature and Policies.

As of mid-October 2014, the ongoing Ebola epidemic in Western Africa has affected approximately 10,000 patients, approached a 50% mortality rate, and crossed political and geographic borders without precedent. The disease has spread throughout Liberia, Guinea, and Sierra Leone. Isolated cases have arrived in urban centers in Europe and North America. The exponential growth, currently unabated, highlights the urgent need for effective and immediate management protocols for the various health care subspecialties that may care for Ebola virus disease patients. We conducted a comprehensive review of the literature to identify key areas of anesthetic care affected by this disease. The serious potential for "high-risk exposure" and "direct contact" (as defined by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) of anesthesiologists caring for Ebola patients prompted this urgent investigation. A search was conducted using MEDLINE/PubMed, MeSH, Cochrane Review, and Google Scholar. Key words included "anesthesia" and/or "ebola" combined with "surgery," "intubation," "laryngoscopy," "bronchoscopy," "stethoscope," "ventilation," "ventilator," "phlebotomy," "venous cannulation," "operating room," "personal protection," "equipment," "aerosol," "respiratory failure," or "needle stick." No language or date limits were applied. We also included secondary-source data from government organizations and scientific societies such as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, World Health Organization, American Society of Anesthesiologists, and American College of Surgeons. Articles were reviewed for primary-source data related to inpatient management of Ebola cases as well as evidence-based management guidelines and protocols for the care of Ebola patients in the operative room, infection control, and health care worker personal protection. Two hundred thirty-six articles were identified using the aforementioned terminology in the scientific database search engines. Twenty articles met search criteria for information related to inpatient Ebola virus disease management or animal virology studies as primary or secondary sources. In addition, 9 articles met search criteria as tertiary sources, representing published guidelines. The recommendations developed in this article are based on these 29 source documents. Anesthesia-specific literature regarding the care of Ebola patients is very limited. Secondary-source guidelines and policies represent the majority of available information. Data from controlled animal experiments and tuberculosis patient research provide some evidence for the existing recommendations and identify future guideline considerations.

Accuracy and consistency of modern elastomeric pumps.

Continuous peripheral nerve blockade has become a popular method of achieving postoperative analgesia for many surgical procedures. The safety and reliability of infusion pumps are dependent on their flow rate accuracy and consistency. Knowledge of pump rate profiles can help physicians determine which infusion pump is best suited for their clinical applications and specific patient population. Several studies have investigated the accuracy of portable infusion pumps. Using methodology similar to that used by Ilfeld et al, we investigated the accuracy and consistency of several current elastomeric pumps.

A matter of life or limb? A review of traumatic injury patterns and anesthesia techniques for disaster relief after major earthquakes.

BACKGROUND: All modalities of anesthetic care, including conscious sedation, general, and regional anesthesia, have been used to manage earthquake survivors who require urgent surgical intervention during the acute phase of medical relief. Consequently, we felt that a review of epidemiologic data from major earthquakes in the context of urgent intraoperative management was warranted to optimize anesthesia disaster preparedness for future medical relief operations. The primary outcome measure of this study was to identify the predominant preoperative injury pattern (anatomic location and pathology) of survivors presenting for surgical care immediately after major earthquakes during the acute phase of medical relief (0-15 days after disaster). The injury pattern is of significant relevance because it closely relates to the anesthetic techniques available for patient management. We discuss our findings in the context of evidence-based strategies for anesthetic management during the acute phase of medical relief after major earthquakes and the associated obstacles of devastated medical infrastructure. METHODS: To identify reports on acute medical care in the aftermath of natural disasters, a query was conducted using MEDLINE/PubMed, Embase, CINAHL, as well as an online search engine (Google Scholar). The search terms were "disaster" and "earthquake" in combination with "injury," "trauma," "surgery," "anesthesia," and "wounds." Our investigation focused only on studies of acute traumatic injury that specified surgical intervention among survivors in the acute phase of medical relief. RESULTS: A total of 31 articles reporting on 15 major earthquakes (between 1980 and 2010) and the treatment of more than 33,410 patients met our specific inclusion criteria. The mean incidence of traumatic limb injury per major earthquake was 68.0%. The global incidence of traumatic limb injury was 54.3% (18,144/33,410 patients). The pooled estimate of the proportion of limb injuries was calculated to be 67.95%, with a 95% confidence interval of 62.32% to 73.58%. CONCLUSIONS: Based on this analysis, early disaster surgical intervention will focus on surviving patients with limb injury. All anesthetic techniques have been safely used for medical relief. While regional anesthesia may be an intuitive choice based on these findings, in the context of collapsed medical infrastructure, provider experience may dictate the available anesthetic techniques for earthquake survivors requiring urgent surgery.

A 3-dimensional ultrasound study of local anesthetic spread during lateral popliteal nerve block: what is the ideal end point for needle tip position?

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Recent clinical trials suggest that subfascial (sometimes termed subepineural) injections result in faster block onset and success compared with conventional techniques. This prospective, randomized, observer-blinded study measured and compared the 3-dimensional spread pattern and volume of perineural local anesthetic (LA) in contact with the sciatic nerve after subfascial versus extrafascial lateral popliteal injections. METHODS: Sixty patients were randomly assigned to either the subfascial or the extrafascial injection group. All patients received a single-injection, US-guided lateral popliteal sciatic nerve block for postoperative pain. Depending on group assignment, the needle tip was placed outside or beneath the sciatic fascial sheath for a single injection of 30 mL of ropivacaine 0.5%. Using 3-dimensional ultrasound imaging, postblock scans were acquired to quantify the volume and spread pattern of perineural LA around the sciatic nerve in each group. RESULTS: The mean LA perineural volume for the extrafascial group was 1.48 (SD, 0.50) mL versus a mean of 5.57 (SD, 1.68) mL for the subfascial group, P < 0.05. The mean distance of longitudinal perineural LA spread (along the length of the nerve) for the subfascial group was 66% greater than that observed using the conventional technique (9.3 vs 5.6 cm, P < 0.01). Complete sensory block to pinprick for the extrafascial group was 63% versus 90% (P < 0.05) for the subfascial group. CONCLUSIONS: Placement of the needle tip beneath the complex fascial sheath of the sciatic nerve resulted in significantly greater perineural local anesthetic volume following a single-injection lateral popliteal approach at the nerve bifurcation and was associated with greater sensory blockade and a characteristic laminar LA spread pattern.

Surgery under extreme conditions in the aftermath of the 2010 Haiti earthquake: the importance of regional anesthesia.

The 12 January 2010 earthquake that struck Port-au-Prince, Haiti caused >200,000 deaths, thousands of injuries requiring immediate surgical interventions, and 1.5 million internally displaced survivors. The earthquake destroyed or disabled most medical facilities in the city, seriously hampering the ability to deliver immediate life- and limb-saving surgical care. A Project Medishare/University of Miami Miller School of Medicine trauma team deployed to Haiti from Miami within 24 hours of the earthquake. The team began work at a pre-existing tent facility in the United Nations (UN) compound based at the airport, where they encountered 225 critically injured patients. However, non-sterile conditions, no means to administer oxygen, the lack of surgical equipment and supplies, and no anesthetics precluded the immediate delivery of general anesthesia. Despite these limitations, resuscitative care was administered, and during the first 72 hours following the event, some amputations were performed with local anesthesia. Because of these austere conditions, an anesthesiologist, experienced and equipped to administer regional block anesthesia, was dispatched three days later to perform anesthesia for limb amputations, debridements, and wound care using single shot block anesthesia until a better equipped tent facility was established. After four weeks, the relief effort evolved into a 250-bed, multi-specialty trauma/intensive care center staffed with >200 medical, nursing, and administrative staff. Within that timeframe, the facility and its staff completed 1,000 surgeries, including spine and pediatric neurological procedures, without major complications. This experience suggests that when local emergency medical resources are completely destroyed or seriously disabled, a surgical team staffed and equipped to provide regional nerve block anesthesia and acute pain management can be dispatched rapidly to serve as a bridge to more advanced field surgical and intensive care, which takes longer to deploy and set up.

Diabetes mellitus, independent of body mass index, is associated with a "higher success" rate for supraclavicular brachial plexus blocks.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The prevalence of obesity and diabetes mellitus continues to rise in industrialized countries. The impact of diabetes on the practice of peripheral nerve block anesthesia, however, has not been fully elucidated. The authors retrospectively evaluated the influence of diabetes, body mass index (BMI), age, and sex on the success of supraclavicular block (SCB) placed with a landmark-based paresthesia technique. METHODS: The anesthetic records of 1858 consecutive patients who received an SCB were analyzed. Block success was documented solely on the day of surgery, without additional follow-up. Patients were categorized as diabetic (group D, n = 262) or nondiabetic (group ND, n = 1596). Block "success rate" (ie, general anesthesia not required to produce surgical conditions) was analyzed using multiple regression (multivariable linear and logistic) to assess the associations of diabetes and/or body mass index on successful surgical anesthesia. RESULTS: Patients in group D were more likely (odds ratio, 3.3) to have a "successful" SCB for surgical anesthesia than were patients in group ND (P < 0.0001). Body mass index, age, and sex were not associated predictors of SCB "success." CONCLUSIONS: We speculate that the "higher success" of SCB in patients with diabetes may be explained by: (i) higher sensitivity of diabetic nerve fibers to local anesthetics, (ii) possible unknown intraneural penetration before injection, and/or (iii) preexisting neuropathy with accompanying decreased sensation. In the absence of additional follow-up on these patients, these data should generate outcomes research addressing dose-response curves for patients with diabetes or at risk for diabetes.