Closed Fluxtubes and Dispersive Proton Conics at Jupiter's Polar Cap.

Two distinct proton populations are observed over Jupiter's southern polar cap: a ∼1 keV core population and ∼1-300 keV dispersive conic population at 6-7 RJ planetocentric distance. We find the 1 keV core protons are likely the seed population for the higher-energy dispersive conics, which are accelerated from a distance of ∼3-5 RJ. Transient wave-particle heating in a "pressure-cooker" process is likely responsible for this proton acceleration. The plasma characteristics and composition during this period show Jupiter's polar-most field lines can be topologically closed, with conjugate magnetic footpoints connected to both hemispheres. Finally, these observations demonstrate energetic protons can be accelerated into Jupiter's magnetotail via wave-particle coupling.

Charge-State-Dependent Energization of Suprathermal Ions During Substorm Injections Observed by MMS in the Magnetotail.

Understanding the energization processes and constituent composition of the plasma and energetic particles injected into the near-Earth region from the tail is an important component of understanding magnetospheric dynamics. In this study, we present multiple case studies of the high-energy (≳40 keV) suprathermal ion populations during energetic particle enhancement events observed by the Energetic Ion Spectrometer (EIS) on NASA's Magnetospheric Multiscale (MMS) mission in the magnetotail. We present results from correlation analysis of the flux response between different energy channels of different ion species (hydrogen, helium, and oxygen) for multiple cases. We demonstrate that this technique can be used to infer the dominant charge state of the heavy ions, despite the fact that charge is not directly measured by EIS. Using this technique, we find that the energization and dispersion of suprathermal ions during energetic particle enhancements concurrent with (or near) fast plasma flows are ordered by energy per charge state (E/q) throughout the magnetotail regions examined (~7 to 25 Earth radii). The ions with the highest energies (≳300 keV) are helium and oxygen of solar wind origin, which obtain their greater energization due to their higher charge states. Additionally, the case studies show that during these injections the flux ratio of enhancement is also well ordered by E/q. These results expand on previous results which showed that high-energy total ion measurements in the magnetosphere are dominated by high-charge-state heavy ions and that protons are often not the dominant species above ~300 keV.

Probing the energetic particle environment near the Sun.

NASA's Parker Solar Probe mission1 recently plunged through the inner heliosphere of the Sun to its perihelia, about 24 million kilometres from the Sun. Previous studies farther from the Sun (performed mostly at a distance of 1 astronomical unit) indicate that solar energetic particles are accelerated from a few kiloelectronvolts up to near-relativistic energies via at least two processes: 'impulsive' events, which are usually associated with magnetic reconnection in solar flares and are typically enriched in electrons, helium-3 and heavier ions2, and 'gradual' events3,4, which are typically associated with large coronal-mass-ejection-driven shocks and compressions moving through the corona and inner solar wind and are the dominant source of protons with energies between 1 and 10 megaelectronvolts. However, some events show aspects of both processes and the electron-proton ratio is not bimodally distributed, as would be expected if there were only two possible processes5. These processes have been very difficult to resolve from prior observations, owing to the various transport effects that affect the energetic particle population en route to more distant spacecraft6. Here we report observations of the near-Sun energetic particle radiation environment over the first two orbits of the probe. We find a variety of energetic particle events accelerated both locally and remotely including by corotating interaction regions, impulsive events driven by acceleration near the Sun, and an event related to a coronal mass ejection. We provide direct observations of the energetic particle radiation environment in the region just above the corona of the Sun and directly explore the physics of particle acceleration and transport.

High-Energy (>10 MeV) Oxygen and Sulfur Ions Observed at Jupiter From Pulse Width Measurements of the JEDI Sensors.

The Jovian polar regions produce X-rays that are characteristic of very energetic oxygen and sulfur that become highly charged on precipitating into Jupiter's upper atmosphere. Juno has traversed the polar regions above where these energetic ions are expected to be precipitating revealing a complex composition and energy structure. Energetic ions are likely to drive the characteristic X-rays observed at Jupiter (Haggerty et al., 2017, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL072866; Houston et al., 2018, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JA024872; Kharchenko et al., 2006, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006GL026039). Motivated by the science of X-ray generation, we describe here Juno Jupiter Energetic Particle Detector Instrument (JEDI) measurements of ions above 1 MeV and demonstrate the capability of measuring oxygen and sulfur ions with energies up to 100 MeV. We detail the process of retrieving ion fluxes from pulse width data on instruments like JEDI (called "puck's"; Clark, Cohen, et al., 2016, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL074366; Clark, Mauk, et al., 2016, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JA022257; Mauk et al., 2013, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-013-0025-3) as well as details on retrieving very energetic particles (>20 MeV) above which the pulse width also saturates.

Energetic Oxygen and Sulfur Charge States in the Outer Jovian Magnetosphere: Insights From the Cassini Jupiter Flyby.

On 10 January 2001, Cassini briefly entered into the magnetosphere of Jupiter, en route to Saturn. During this excursion into the Jovian magnetosphere, the Cassini Magnetosphere Imaging Instrument/Charge-Energy-Mass Spectrometer detected oxygen and sulfur ions. While Charge-Energy-Mass Spectrometer can distinguish between oxygen and sulfur charge states directly, only 95.9 ± 2.9 keV/e ions were sampled during this interval, allowing for a long time integration of the tenuous outer magnetospheric (~200 RJ) plasma at one energy. For this brief interval for the 95.9 keV/e ions, 96% of oxygen ions were O+, with the other 4% as O2+, while 25% of the energetic sulfur ions were S+, 42% S2+, and 33% S3+. The S2+/O+ flux ratio was observed to be 0.35 (±0.06 Poisson error).

Pluto's Interaction With Energetic Heliospheric Ions.

Pluto energies of a few kiloelectron volts and suprathermal ions with tens of kiloelectron volts and above. We measure this population using the Pluto Energetic Particle Spectrometer Science Investigation (PEPSSI) instrument on board the New Horizons spacecraft that flew by Pluto in 2015. Even though the measured ions have gyroradii larger than the size of Pluto and the cross section of its magnetosphere, we find that the boundary of the magnetosphere is depleting the energetic ion intensities by about an order of magnitude close to Pluto. The intensity is increasing exponentially with distance to Pluto and reaches nominal levels of the interplanetary medium at about 190R P distance. Inside the wake of Pluto, we observe oscillations of the ion intensities with a periodicity of about 0.2 hr. We show that these can be quantitatively explained by the electric field of an ultralow-frequency wave and discuss possible physical drivers for such a field. We find no evidence for the presence of plutogenic ions in the considered energy range.

A radiation belt of energetic protons located between Saturn and its rings.

Saturn has a sufficiently strong dipole magnetic field to trap high-energy charged particles and form radiation belts, which have been observed outside its rings. Whether stable radiation belts exist near the planet and inward of the rings was previously unknown. The Cassini spacecraft's Magnetosphere Imaging Instrument obtained measurements of a radiation belt that lies just above Saturn's dense atmosphere and is decoupled from the rest of the magnetosphere by the planet's A- to C-rings. The belt extends across the D-ring and comprises protons produced through cosmic ray albedo neutron decay and multiple charge-exchange reactions. These protons are lost to atmospheric neutrals and D-ring dust. Strong proton depletions that map onto features on the D-ring indicate a highly structured and diverse dust environment near Saturn.

Dust grains fall from Saturn's D-ring into its equatorial upper atmosphere.

The sizes of Saturn's ring particles range from meters (boulders) to nanometers (dust). Determination of the rings' ages depends on loss processes, including the transport of dust into Saturn's atmosphere. During the Grand Finale orbits of the Cassini spacecraft, its instruments measured tiny dust grains that compose the innermost D-ring of Saturn. The nanometer-sized dust experiences collisions with exospheric (upper atmosphere) hydrogen and molecular hydrogen, which forces it to fall from the ring into the ionosphere and lower atmosphere. We used the Magnetospheric Imaging Instrument to detect and characterize this dust transport and also found that diffusion dominates above and near the altitude of peak ionospheric density. This mechanism results in a mass deposition into the equatorial atmosphere of ~5 kilograms per second, constraining the age of the D-ring.

Chemical interactions between Saturn's atmosphere and its rings.

The Pioneer and Voyager spacecraft made close-up measurements of Saturn's ionosphere and upper atmosphere in the 1970s and 1980s that suggested a chemical interaction between the rings and atmosphere. Exploring this interaction provides information on ring composition and the influence on Saturn's atmosphere from infalling material. The Cassini Ion Neutral Mass Spectrometer sampled in situ the region between the D ring and Saturn during the spacecraft's Grand Finale phase. We used these measurements to characterize the atmospheric structure and material influx from the rings. The atmospheric He/H2 ratio is 10 to 16%. Volatile compounds from the rings (methane; carbon monoxide and/or molecular nitrogen), as well as larger organic-bearing grains, are flowing inward at a rate of 4800 to 45,000 kilograms per second.

Energetic Ion Injections Inside Geosynchronous Orbit: Convection- and Drift-Dominated, Charge-Dependent Adiabatic Energization (W = qEd).

Particle injection, a major mode of plasma transport and energization throughout the magnetosphere, has been studied for decades. Nonetheless, the physical processes that lead to the acceleration and transport of very energetic ions in the inner magnetosphere during injection events are still under debate. In this paper, we analyze several injection events occurring near the Van Allen Probes apogee. Our analysis shows that the highest energy of an injected ion population depends on the charge state of that population. We show that most of the helium injected is doubly ionized (He++), while oxygen charge states are consistent with the presence of both ionospheric (O+) and solar wind (O6+) source populations. Based on the findings of our data analysis and with the use of a simple model, we demonstrate that the behavior of each injection of energetic ions near the Van Allen Probes apogee (5 < L < 7 R E) is well explained by simple adiabatic or nearly adiabatic transport within flow channels from higher L (≥10 R E) with velocities at 10 R E ranging between ~200 and 2,000 km/s and falling with inward transport consistent with fixed potential drops across the flow channels. Gradient/curvature drift during transport limits the highest energy/charge observed for each injection at the Van Allen Probes. Even at the highest measured ion energies where gyroradius and scattering effects might be expected to appear, energization depends on charge state but not on ion mass.

The Low-Energy Neutral Imager (LENI).

To achieve breakthroughs in the areas of heliospheric and magnetospheric energetic neutral atom (ENA) imaging, a new class of instruments is required. We present a high angular resolution ENA imager concept aimed at the suprathermal plasma populations with energies between 0.5 and 20 keV. This instrument is intended for understanding the spatial and temporal structure of the heliospheric boundary recently revealed by Interstellar Boundary Explorer instrumentation and the Cassini Ion and Neutral Camera. The instrument is also well suited to characterize magnetospheric ENA emissions from low-altitude ENA emissions produced by precipitation of magnetospheric ions into the terrestrial upper atmosphere, or from the magnetosheath where solar wind protons are neutralized by charge exchange, or from portions of the ring current region. We present a new technique utilizing ultrathin carbon foils, 2-D collimation, and a novel electron optical design to produce high angular resolution (≤2°) and high-sensitivity (≥10-3 cm2 sr/pixel) ENA imaging in the 0.5-20 keV energy range.

The "Puck" energetic charged particle detector: Design, heritage, and advancements.

Energetic charged particle detectors characterize a portion of the plasma distribution function that plays critical roles in some physical processes, from carrying the currents in planetary ring currents to weathering the surfaces of planetary objects. For several low-resource missions in the past, the need was recognized for a low-resource but highly capable, mass-species-discriminating energetic particle sensor that could also obtain angular distributions without motors or mechanical articulation. This need led to the development of a compact Energetic Particle Detector (EPD), known as the "Puck" EPD (short for hockey puck), that is capable of determining the flux, angular distribution, and composition of incident ions between an energy range of ~10 keV to several MeV. This sensor makes simultaneous angular measurements of electron fluxes from the tens of keV to about 1 MeV. The same measurements can be extended down to approximately 1 keV/nucleon, with some composition ambiguity. These sensors have a proven flight heritage record that includes missions such as MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging and New Horizons, with multiple sensors on each of Juno, Van Allen Probes, and Magnetospheric Multiscale. In this review paper we discuss the Puck EPD design, its heritage, unexpected results from these past missions and future advancements. We also discuss high-voltage anomalies that are thought to be associated with the use of curved foils, which is a new foil manufacturing processes utilized on recent Puck EPD designs. Finally, we discuss the important role Puck EPDs can potentially play in upcoming missions.

Cassini observations of ionospheric plasma in Saturn's magnetotail lobes.

Studies of Saturn's magnetosphere with the Cassini mission have established the importance of Enceladus as the dominant mass source for Saturn's magnetosphere. It is well known that the ionosphere is an important mass source at Earth during periods of intense geomagnetic activity, but lesser attention has been dedicated to study the ionospheric mass source at Saturn. In this paper we describe a case study of data from Saturn's magnetotail, when Cassini was located at ≃ 2200 h Saturn local time at 36 RS from Saturn. During several entries into the magnetotail lobe, tailward flowing cold electrons and a cold ion beam were observed directly adjacent to the plasma sheet and extending deeper into the lobe. The electrons and ions appear to be dispersed, dropping to lower energies with time. The composition of both the plasma sheet and lobe ions show very low fluxes (sometimes zero within measurement error) of water group ions. The magnetic field has a swept-forward configuration which is atypical for this region, and the total magnetic field strength is larger than expected at this distance from the planet. Ultraviolet auroral observations show a dawn brightening, and upstream heliospheric models suggest that the magnetosphere is being compressed by a region of high solar wind ram pressure. We interpret this event as the observation of ionospheric outflow in Saturn's magnetotail. We estimate a number flux between (2.95 ± 0.43) × 109 and (1.43 ± 0.21) × 1010 cm-2 s-1, 1 or about 2 orders of magnitude larger than suggested by steady state MHD models, with a mass source between 1.4 ×102 and 1.1 ×103 kg/s. After considering several configurations for the active atmospheric regions, we consider as most probable the main auroral oval, with associated mass source between 49.7 ±13.4 and 239.8 ±64.8 kg/s for an average auroral oval, and 10 ±4 and 49 ±23 kg/s for the specific auroral oval morphology found during this event. It is not clear how much of this mass is trapped within the magnetosphere and how much is lost to the solar wind.

Pluto's interaction with its space environment: Solar wind, energetic particles, and dust.

The New Horizons spacecraft carried three instruments that measured the space environment near Pluto as it flew by on 14 July 2015. The Solar Wind Around Pluto (SWAP) instrument revealed an interaction region confined sunward of Pluto to within about 6 Pluto radii. The region's surprisingly small size is consistent with a reduced atmospheric escape rate, as well as a particularly high solar wind flux. Observations from the Pluto Energetic Particle Spectrometer Science Investigation (PEPSSI) instrument suggest that ions are accelerated and/or deflected around Pluto. In the wake of the interaction region, PEPSSI observed suprathermal particle fluxes equal to about 1/10 of the flux in the interplanetary medium and increasing with distance downstream. The Venetia Burney Student Dust Counter, which measures grains with radii larger than 1.4 micrometers, detected one candidate impact in ±5 days around New Horizons' closest approach, indicating an upper limit of <4.6 kilometers(-3) for the dust density in the Pluto system.

Network analysis of human fMRI data suggests modular restructuring after simulated acquired brain injury.

The pathophysiology underlying neurocognitive dysfunction following mild traumatic brain injury (TBI), or concussion, is poorly understood. In order to shed light on the effects of TBI at the functional network or modular level, our research groups are engaged in the acquisition and analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging data from subjects post-TBI. Complementary to this effort, in this paper we use mathematical and computational techniques to determine how modular structure changes in response to specific mechanisms of injury. In particular, we examine in detail the potential effects of focal contusions, diffuse axonal degeneration and diffuse microlesions, illustrating the extent to which functional modules are preserved or degenerated by each type of injury. One striking prediction of our study is that the left and right hemispheres show a tendency to become functionally separated post-injury, but only in response to diffuse microlesions. We highlight other key differences among the effects of the three modelled injuries and discuss their clinical implications. These results may help delineate the functional mechanisms underlying several of the cognitive sequelae associated with TBI.

Field dipolarization in Saturn's magnetotail with planetward ion flows and energetic particle flow bursts: Evidence of quasi-steady reconnection.

We present a case study of an event from 20 August (day 232) of 2006, when the Cassini spacecraft was sampling the region near 32 RS and 22 h LT in Saturn's magnetotail. Cassini observed a strong northward-to-southward turning of the magnetic field, which is interpreted as the signature of dipolarization of the field as seen by the spacecraft planetward of the reconnection X line. This event was accompanied by very rapid (up to ~1500 km s-1) thermal plasma flow toward the planet. At energies above 28 keV, energetic hydrogen and oxygen ion flow bursts were observed to stream planetward from a reconnection site downtail of the spacecraft. Meanwhile, a strong field-aligned beam of energetic hydrogen was also observed to stream tailward, likely from an ionospheric source. Saturn kilometric radiation emissions were stimulated shortly after the observation of the dipolarization. We discuss the field, plasma, energetic particle, and radio observations in the context of the impact this reconnection event had on global magnetospheric dynamics.

MeV proton flux predictions near Saturn's D ring.

Radiation belts of MeV protons have been observed just outward of Saturn's main rings. During the final stages of the mission, the Cassini spacecraft will pass through the gap between the main rings and the planet. Based on how the known radiation belts of Saturn are formed, it is expected that MeV protons will be present in this gap and also bounce through the tenuous D ring right outside the gap. At least one model has suggested that the intensity of MeV protons near the planet could be much larger than in the known belts. We model this inner radiation belt using a technique developed earlier to understand Saturn's known radiation belts. We find that the inner belt is very different from the outer belts in the sense that its intensity is limited by the densities of the D ring and Saturn's upper atmosphere, not by radial diffusion and satellite absorption. The atmospheric density is relatively well constrained by EUV occultations. Based on that we predict an intensity in the gap region that is well below that of the known belts. It is more difficult to do the same for the region magnetically connected to the D ring since its density is poorly constrained. We find that the intensity in this region can be comparable to the known belts. Such intensities pose no hazard to the mission since Cassini would only experience these fluxes on timescales of minutes but might affect scientific measurements by decreasing the signal-to-contamination ratio of instruments.

Rotationally driven 'zebra stripes' in Earth's inner radiation belt.

Structured features on top of nominally smooth distributions of radiation-belt particles at Earth have been previously associated with particle acceleration and transport mechanisms powered exclusively by enhanced solar-wind activity. Although planetary rotation is considered to be important for particle acceleration at Jupiter and Saturn, the electric field produced in the inner magnetosphere by Earth's rotation can change the velocity of trapped particles by only about 1-2 kilometres per second, so rotation has been thought inconsequential for radiation-belt electrons with velocities of about 100,000 kilometres per second. Here we report that the distributions of energetic electrons across the entire spatial extent of Earth's inner radiation belt are organized in regular, highly structured and unexpected 'zebra stripes', even when the solar-wind activity is low. Modelling reveals that the patterns are produced by Earth's rotation. Radiation-belt electrons are trapped in Earth's dipole-like magnetic field, where they undergo slow longitudinal drift motion around the planet because of the gradient and curvature of the magnetic field. Earth's rotation induces global diurnal variations of magnetic and electric fields that resonantly interact with electrons whose drift period is close to 24 hours, modifying electron fluxes over a broad energy range into regular patterns composed of multiple stripes extending over the entire span of the inner radiation belt.

Cusp observation at Saturn's high-latitude magnetosphere by the Cassini spacecraft.

We report on the first analysis of magnetospheric cusp observations at Saturn by multiple in situ instruments onboard the Cassini spacecraft. Using this we infer the process of reconnection was occurring at Saturn's magnetopause. This agrees with remote observations that showed the associated auroral signatures of reconnection. Cassini crossed the northern cusp around noon local time along a poleward trajectory. The spacecraft observed ion energy-latitude dispersions-a characteristic signature of the terrestrial cusp. This ion dispersion is "stepped," which shows that the reconnection is pulsed. The ion energy-pitch angle dispersions suggest that the field-aligned distance from the cusp to the reconnection site varies between ∼27 and 51 RS . An intensification of lower frequencies of the Saturn kilometric radiation emissions suggests the prior arrival of a solar wind shock front, compressing the magnetosphere and providing more favorable conditions for magnetopause reconnection. KEY POINTS: We observe evidence for reconnection in the cusp plasma at SaturnWe present evidence that the reconnection process can be pulsed at SaturnSaturn's cusp shows similar characteristics to the terrestrial cusp.

Dynamic auroral storms on Saturn as observed by the Hubble Space Telescope.

We present observations of significant dynamics within two UV auroral storms observed on Saturn using the Hubble Space Telescope in April/May 2013. Specifically, we discuss bursts of auroral emission observed at the poleward boundary of a solar wind-induced auroral storm, propagating at ∼330% rigid corotation from near ∼01 h LT toward ∼08 h LT. We suggest that these are indicative of ongoing, bursty reconnection of lobe flux in the magnetotail, providing strong evidence that Saturn's auroral storms are caused by large-scale flux closure. We also discuss the later evolution of a similar storm and show that the emission maps to the trailing region of an energetic neutral atom enhancement. We thus identify the auroral form with the upward field-aligned continuity currents flowing into the associated partial ring current.