Bothrops alternatus Snake Venom Induces Cytokine Expression and Oxidative Stress on Renal Function.

BACKGROUND: Envenomation caused by Bothrops alternatus is common in Southern Brazil. Acute Kidney Injury occurs after Bothrops snakebite and more information is necessaryrequired to understand its mechanism. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to evaluate the effect of Bothrops alternatus venom (BaV) on renal cells and rat isolated kidney function. METHODS: Wistar rats (n = 6, weighing 260-320 g) were perfused with a Krebs-Henseleit solution containing 6 g 100 mL-1 of bovine serum albumin. After 30 minutes, the kidneys were perfused with BaV to a final concentration of 1 and 3 µgmL-1; and subsequently were evaluated for Perfusion Pressure (PP), Renal Vascular Resistance (RVR), Urinary Flow (UF), Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR), and percentage of electrolyte tubular transport. Renal histological analysis, cytokine release, oxidative stress and cytotoxicity in renal proximal tubular cells were assessed. RESULTS: BaV reduced PP, RVR, GFR, UF, total and proximal sodium transport (%TNa+), and chloride (%TCl-) in the isolated kidney perfusion model. Histological analysis of perfused kidneys disclosed the presence of proteinaceous material in the glomeruli and renal tubules, vacuolar tubular epithelial cell degeneration, Bowman's capsule degeneration, swelling of glomerular epithelial cells, glomerular atrophy and degeneration, and the presence of intratubular protein. Cytokine release (TNF-α, IL-1ß, IL-10) and oxidative stress were increased in the kidneys. The viability of LLC-MK2 cells (IC50: 221.3 µg/mL) was decreased by BaV and necrosis was involved in cell death. CONCLUSION: These findings indicate that BaV modifies functional parameters in an isolated perfused kidney model and has cytotoxic effects on renal lineage cells.

Renal Alterations Induced by the Venom of Colombian Scorpion Centruroides Margaritatus.

BACKGROUND: Scorpion venom causes renal injury and affects vascular ion-channels function. Centruroides margaritatus scorpion is found in Colombia and is frequently the cause of envenomation accidents; however, its renal impact has never been investigated. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effects of C. margaritatus venom (CmV) on renal parameters using isolated rat kidney and renal cell culture models. METHODS: Wistar rats (n = 5, weighing 240-300 g) were first perfused with Krebs-Henseleit solution containing 6 g 100 mL-1 bovine serum albumin. After 30 minutes, the kidneys were perfused with CmV to a final concentration of 10 µgmL-1; evaluation was performed by measuring Perfusion Pressure (PP), Renal Vascular Resistance (RVR), Urinary Flow (UF), Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR), and percentage of electrolyte tubular transport. Moreover, kidney histological analyses and cell cytotoxicity in renal tubule epithelial cells (MDCK) and proximal tubular cells (LLC-MK2) were assessed. RESULTS: CmV increased PP and RVR 60 min after perfusion. On the other hand, UF, GFR, and the percentages of sodium, potassium and chloride tubular transport decreased after experimental envenomation. UF dropped after 120 min, while GFR and percentage of electrolyte tubular transport diminished after 60, 90 and 120 min. CmV was not toxic to MDCK cell line but reduced the viability of LLC-MK2 cells at concentrations ranging from 6.25 to 200 µgmL-1. Histological analyses disclosed hydropic degeneration, edema, and protein deposits. Flow cytometry disclosed that cell death occurred predominantly by necrosis. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that C. margaritatus venom can trigger renal impairment, mainly in the proximal kidney tubule.

Anti-ophidian activity of Bredemeyera floribunda Willd. (Polygalaceae) root extract on the local effects induced by Bothrops jararacussu venom

Bredemeyera floribunda roots are popularly used to treat snakebites in the semiarid region of Northeast Brazil, and previous studies indicate the anti-ophidian actions of triterpenoid saponins found in its roots. To assess B. floribunda root extract (BFRE) activity against the effects of Bothrops jararacussu venom (BjuV), antiphospholipasic, antiproteolytic, antihemorrhagic, antinecrotic, and anti-edematogenic activities were investigated in mice. Phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of saponins, flavonoids, and sugars, with rutin and saccharose being the major constituents of BFRE. Acute toxicity was determined and BFRE was nontoxic to mice. Phospholipase A2 and proteolytic activities induced by BjuV were inhibited in vitro by BFRE at all concentrations tested herein. BFRE (150 mg/kg) inhibited paw edema induced by BjuV (50 µg/animal), reducing total edema calculated by area under the curve, but carrageenan-induced paw edema was unchanged. Hemorrhagic and necrotizing actions of BjuV (50 µg/animal) were considerably decreased by BFRE treatment. Thus, BFRE blocked the toxic actions of B. jararacussu venom despite having no anti-inflammatory activity, which points to a direct inhibition of venom's toxins, as demonstrated in the in vitro assays. The larger amounts of rutin found in BFRE may play a role in this inhibition, since 3′,4′-OH flavonoids are known inhibitors of phospholipases A2.

Anti-ophidian activity of Bredemeyera floribunda Willd. (Polygalaceae) root extract on the local effects induced by Bothrops jararacussu venom.

Bredemeyera floribunda roots are popularly used to treat snakebites in the semiarid region of Northeast Brazil, and previous studies indicate the anti-ophidian actions of triterpenoid saponins found in its roots. To assess B. floribunda root extract (BFRE) activity against the effects of Bothrops jararacussu venom (BjuV), antiphospholipasic, antiproteolytic, antihemorrhagic, antinecrotic, and anti-edematogenic activities were investigated in mice. Phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of saponins, flavonoids, and sugars, with rutin and saccharose being the major constituents of BFRE. Acute toxicity was determined and BFRE was nontoxic to mice. Phospholipase A2 and proteolytic activities induced by BjuV were inhibited in vitro by BFRE at all concentrations tested herein. BFRE (150 mg/kg) inhibited paw edema induced by BjuV (50 µg/animal), reducing total edema calculated by area under the curve, but carrageenan-induced paw edema was unchanged. Hemorrhagic and necrotizing actions of BjuV (50 µg/animal) were considerably decreased by BFRE treatment. Thus, BFRE blocked the toxic actions of B. jararacussu venom despite having no anti-inflammatory activity, which points to a direct inhibition of venom's toxins, as demonstrated in the in vitro assays. The larger amounts of rutin found in BFRE may play a role in this inhibition, since 3',4'-OH flavonoids are known inhibitors of phospholipases A2.

Karyotype of Philodryas nattereri and Philodryas olfersii with a comparative analysis of the Dipsadidae family.

Cytogenetic studies of Philodryas nattereri and Philodryas olfersii revealed a diploid chromosome number 2n = 36 for both species (3 metacentrics, 4 submetacentrics, and 10 acrocentrics, with a fundamental number of 51 and 52, respectively). The results obtained are novel and similar to those previously described for species belonging to the Dipsadidae family. The conventional karyotype is also novel and divergent from other species of the Dipsadidae family, where a higher proportion of macrochromosomes predominate, revealing two distinct groups in this family. The data are reported and discussed considering the cytotaxonomy of the family. These results strongly support the current view that chromosomal alterations, such as centric fusion and Robertsonian's translocations, seems to support the distinct importance of chromosomal rearrangements in speciation within this group.

Antimicrobial effect of Dinoponera quadriceps (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) venom against Staphylococcus aureus strains.

AIMS: Dinoponera quadriceps venom (DqV) was examined to evaluate the antibacterial activity and its bactericidal action mechanism against Staphylococcus aureus. METHODS AND RESULTS: DqV was tested against a standard strain of methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA), Staph. aureus ATCC 6538P and two standard strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Staph. aureus ATCC 33591 and Staph. aureus CCBH 5330. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC), the rate of kill and pH sensitivity of the DqV were determined by microdilution tests. Bactericidal and inhibitory concentrations of DqV were tested to check its action on Staph. aureus membrane permeability and cell morphology. The MIC and MBC of DqV were 6·25 and 12·5 µg ml(-1) for Staph. aureus ATCC 6538P, 12·5 and 50 µg ml(-1) for Staph. aureus CCBH 5330 and 100 and 100 µg ml(-1) for Staph. aureus ATCC 33591, respectively. Complete bacterial growth inhibition was observed after 4 h of incubation with the MBC of DqV. A lowest MIC was observed in alkaline pH. Alteration in membrane permeability was observed through the increase in crystal violet uptake, genetic material release and morphology in atomic force microscopy. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest antibacterial activity of DqV against Staph. aureus and that the venom acts in the cell membrane. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Alteration in membrane permeability may be associated with the antimicrobial activity of hymenopteran venoms.

Towards a better understanding of Ipomoea asarifolia toxicity: evidence of the involvement of a leaf lectin.

Natural intoxication of livestock by ingestion of Ipomoea asarifolia leaves has been reported to occur widely in Brazil. Previous studies carried out by our research group provided strong evidence that a lectin could be involved with the toxic properties of I. asarifolia. To reinforce this hypothesis, a lectin-enriched fraction (LEF) was isolated from I. asarifolia leaves and its toxic effects were assessed. Leaves of I. asarifolia were excised from plants growing widely in the field, mechanically wounded and maintained in a chamber at 25 ± 3 °C for 72h in the dark, under near 100% relative humidity. The leaf proteins were extracted, ammonium sulfate precipitated, chromatographed on DEAE-cellulose and Phenyl-Sepharose to produce LEF that under SDS-PAGE showed a molecular mass of 44.0 kDa and after N-terminal amino acid analysis a primary sequence composed of AGYTPVLDIGAEVLAAGEPY. The in vivo toxicity of LEF assessed by intraorbital injection in mice showed induced severe uncoordinated movements without death. LEF reduced the muscular contraction in a dose depend way and at 29.8 µg/mL (CE(50)) it produces 50% inhibition of contraction, suggesting that LEF blunts autonomic neurotransmission. Isolated rat kidneys were perfused with LEF and no effects on the perfusion pressure or renal vascular resistance were observed, but urinary flow and glomerular filtration rate increased. Moreover, the percentage of tubular transport of Na(+), K(+) and Cl(-) decreased. Histological examination of the kidneys perfused with LEF exhibited little alterations. These toxic effects observed above were concomitant with the increase of LEF hemagglutination activity, which strongly suggest that one of the toxic principles of I. asarifolia is a lectin present in its leaves.

Renal and vascular effects of Crotalus durissus cumanensis venom and its crotoxin fraction

In this study, we evaluated the actions of Crotalus durissus cumanensis venom (CDCmV), and its crotoxin (Crtx) fraction, on renal and vascular functions in Wistar rats. In isolated perfused kidneys, CDCmV (10 µg/mL) significantly increased the perfusion pressure (PP) from 110.7 ± 2.4 to 125.3 ± 2.8 mmHg after 30 minutes. This effect was accompanied by an increased renal vascular resistance (RVR) from 5.4 ± 0.1 to 6.2 ± 0.2 mmHg/mL.g-1.min-1. We observed decreases in urinary flow (UF) from 0.13 ± 0.01 to 0.05 ± 001 mL.g-1.min-1 and glomerular filtration rate (GFR) from 0.66 ± 0.06 to 0.18 ± 0.02 mL.g-1.min-1. Crtx did not change PP or RVR, but diminished GFR (from 0.65 ± 0.05 to 0.26 ± 003 mL.g-1.min-1) and UF (from 0.11 ± 0.008 to 0.09 ± 0.008 mL.g-1.min-1). Both CDCmV and Crtx reduced the percentage of tubular transport of sodium, chloride and potassium. The cytotoxicity of these substances against MDCK cells was tested by the MTT method: only CDCmV caused a decrease in the cell viability with an IC50 of 5.4 µg/mL. In endothelium-intact isolated aortic rings, CDCmV (0.1 to 30 µg/mL) increased the sustained phenylephrine-induced contraction to a value of 130.0 ± 6.6 percent of its corresponding control, but showed a relaxant effect in endothelium-denuded preparations. Similar results were observed in aortic rings contracted with potassium (40 mM). Crtx was ineffective in aortic ring assays. Thus, it is reasonable to suggest that the renal effects induced by the CDCmV may be due to its influence on the endothelium's ability to release factors that can alter the contractile behavior of vascular smooth muscle. In conclusion, CDCmV is toxic to kidney cells. It changes parameters of the renal function including the glomerular filtration rate, renal vascular resistance and tubular transport. The actions induced by CDCmV also involve endothelium-dependent vasoactive properties. Their effects may be only partially attributed to Crtx.

Renal- and calcium-dependent vascular effects of Polybia paulista wasp venom

In the present study, the effects of Polybia paulista venom (PPV) on renal and vascular tissues were investigated. Isolated kidneys perfused with PPV (1 and 3 ìg/mL) had increased perfusion pressure, renal vascular resistance, urinary flow, and glomerular filtration rate; and reduced sodium tubular transport. Histological evaluation demonstrated deposits of proteins in Bowman's space and tubular lumen, and focal areas of necrosis. The venom promoted a cytotoxic effect on Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells. A significant increase in lactic dehydrogenase levels was observed in response to venom exposure. In isolated mesenteric vascular beds, pressure and vascular resistance augmented in a dose-dependent manner. PPV increased the contractility of aortic rings maintained under basal tension. This contractile response was inhibited when preparations were maintained in Ca2+-free medium. Likewise, verapamil, a voltage-gated calcium channel blocker, also inhibited the contractile response. In this study, phentolamine, a blocker of á-adrenergic receptor blocker, significantly reduced the contractile effect of PPV in the aortic ring. In conclusion, PPV produced nephrotoxicity, which suggests a direct effect on necrotic cellular death in renal tubule cells. The vascular contractile effect of PPV appears to involve calcium influx through voltage-gated calcium channels via adrenergic regulation.

Antimicrobial activity of an L-amino acid oxidase isolated from Bothrops leucurus snake venom

Some snake venom proteins present enzymatic activities, such as L-amino acid oxidase (LAAO). The aim of this paper was to investigate the effect of Bothrops leucurus total venom (BleuTV) and its fraction LAAO (BleuLAAO) on bacteria, yeast, and promastigote forms of Leishmania amazonensis and Leishmania chagasi, and epimastigote forms of Trypanosoma cruzi. BleuTV was isolated with a Protein Pack 5PW® (Waters Corporation, USA), and several fractions were obtained. BleuLAAO was purified to high molecular homogeneity, and its N-terminal amino acid sequence shared a high degree of amino acid conservation with other LAAOs. BleuTV inhibited Staphylococcus aureus growth in a dose-dependent manner, with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 25 ìg/mL, which corresponded to its minimum lethal concentration (MLC). BleuTV also inhibited the growth of promastigote forms of L. chagasi and L. amazonensis, with respective IC50 values of 1.94 ìg/mL and 5.49 ìg/mL. Furthermore, it repressed T. cruzi growth with an IC50 of 1.14 ìg/mL. However, BleuLAAO did not inhibit the growth of the microorganisms studied and was not toxic to macrophages. BleuTV had low toxicity against macrophages at the concentrations studied. In conclusion, whole venom from Bothrops leucurus inhibited the growth of some microorganisms, including S. aureus, Leishmania sp., and T. cruzi.

Purification and biological effects of a C-type lectin isolated from bothrops moojeni

Snake venom proteins from the C-type lectin family have very distinct biological activities despite their highly conserved primary structure, which is homologous to the carbohydrate recognition region of true C-type lectins. We purified a lectin-like protein (BmLec) from Bothrops moojeni venom and investigated its effect on platelet aggregation, insulin secretion, antibacterial activity, and isolated kidney cells. The BmLec was purified using two chromatographic steps: affinity chromatography and reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). BmLec showed a dose-dependent platelet aggregation and significantly decreased the bacterial growth rate in approximately 15 percent. During scanning electron microscopy, the profile of Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. passiflorae treated with lectin disclosed a high vesiculation and membrane rupture. BmLec induced a strong and significant increase in insulin secretion at 2.8 and 16.7 mM glucose concentrations, and this effect was seen in the presence of EGTA in both experiments. BmLec (10 µg/mL) increased the perfusion pressure, renal vascular resistance and urinary flow. The glomerular filtration rate and percentages of sodium, potassium and chloride tubular transport were reduced at 60 minutes of perfusion. Renal alterations caused by BmLec were completely inhibited by indomethacin in all evaluated parameters. In conclusion, the C-type lectin isolated from Bothrops moojeni affected platelet aggregation, insulin secretion, antibacterial activity and isolated kidney function.

Antivenom action on renal effects induced by Thalassophryne nattereri venom

Thalassophryne nattereri (niquim) is a venomous fish responsible for numerous accidents involving fishermen in northern and northeastern Brazil. The aim of the present investigation was to evaluate the action of antivenom on renal effects caused by Thalassophryne nattereri venom. Isolated kidneys of Wistar rats were perfused with a previously dialyzed Krebs-Henseleit solution containing 6 g% bovine serum albumin. The antivenom action was studied through perfusion pressure (PP), renal vascular resistance (RVR), urinary flow (UF) and glomerular filtration rate (GFR). The niquim venom (1 miug/mL), the antivenom alone (1 miug/mL) or the venom incubated with antivenom were added to the system 30 minutes after the beginning of each perfusion. Previous works have shown venom induced-alterations of renal function parameters. In the isolated rat Kidney, T. nattereri venom (1 miug/mL) increased the perfusion pressure and renal vascular resistance at 60, 90 and 120 minutes. UF and GFR also increased at 60, 90 and 120 minutes when compared with the control group; however, no effects were observed on the percent of sodium (% TNa more control equal 81.1 more or less 0.86; % TNa more 60 equal 78.04 more or less 1.18; % TNa more 90 equal -5.16 more or less 3.34; %TNa more 120 equal 79.49 more or less 0.87) and potassium (%TKcontrol equal 72.29 more or less 1.12; %TK more 60 equal 75.41 more or less 0.65; % TK more 90 equal 71.23 more or less 2.55; % TK more 120 equal 76.62 more or less 1.04) tubular transporto. The administration of the antivenom (1 miug/mL) incubated with venom (1 miug/mL) reduced the changes in PP, RVR, UF and GFR provoked by Thalassophryne nattereri venom. The group perfused with venom alone showed a moderate deposit of a proteinaceous material in the tubules and urinary space.(...)

BTCI enhances guanylin-induced natriuresis and promotes renal glomerular and tubular effects.

Guanylin and uroguanylin are small cysteine-rich peptides involved in the regulation of fluid and electrolyte homeostasis through binding and activation of guanylyl cyclases signaling molecules expressed in intestine and kidney. Guanylin is less potent than uroguanylin as a natriuretic agent and is degraded in vitro by chymotrypsin due to unique structural features in the bioactive moiety of the peptide. Thus, the aim of this study was to verify whether or not guanylin is degraded by chymotrypsin-like proteases present in the kidney brush-border membranes. The isolated perfused rat kidney assay was used in this regard. Guanylin (0.2 microM) induced no changes in kidney function. However, when pretreated by the black-eyed pea trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitor (BTCI - 1.0 microM; guanylin - 0.2 microM) it promoted increases in urine flow (DeltaUF of 0.25 +/- 0.09 mL.g(-1)/min, P < 0.05) and Na+ excretion (% Delta ENa+ of 18.20 +/- 2.17, P < 0.05). BTCI (1.0 microM) also increased %ENa+ (from 22.8 +/- 1.30 to 34.4 +/- 3.48, P < 0.05, 90 minutes). Furthermore, BTCI (3.0 microM) induced increases in glomerular filtration rate (GFR; from 0.96 +/- 0.02 to 1.28 0.02 mL.g(-1)/min, P < 0.05, 60 minutes). The present paper strongly suggests that chymotrypsin-like proteases play a role in renal metabolism of guanylin and describes for the first time renal effects induced by a member of the Bowman-Birk family of protease inhibitors.

BTCI enhances guanylin-induced natriuresis and promotes renal glomerular and tubular effects

Guanylin and uroguanylin are small cysteine-rich peptides involved in the regulation of fluid and electrolyte homeostasis through binding and activation of guanylyl cyclases signaling molecules expressed in intestine and kidney. Guanylin is less potent than uroguanylin as a natriuretic agent and is degraded in vitro by chymotrypsin due to unique structural features in the bioactive moiety of the peptide. Thus, the aim of this study was to verify whether or not guanylin is degraded by chymotrypsin-like proteases present in the kidney brush-border membranes. The isolated perfused rat kidney assay was used in this regard. Guanylin (0.2 µM) induced no changes in kidney function. However, when pretreated by the black-eyed pea trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitor (BTCI - 1.0 µM; guanylin - 0.2 µM) it promoted increases in urine flow (deltaUF of 0.25 ± 0.09 mL.g-1/min, P < 0.05) and Na+ excretion ( percent delta ENa+ of 18.20 ± 2.17, P < 0.05). BTCI (1.0 µM) also increased percentENa+ (from 22.8 ± 1.30 to 34.4 ± 3.48, P < 0.05, 90 minutes). Furthermore, BTCI (3.0 µM) induced increases in glomerular filtration rate (GFR; from 0.96 ± 0.02 to 1.28 0.02 mL.g-1/min, P < 0.05, 60 minutes). The present paper strongly suggests that chymotrypsin-like proteases play a role in renal metabolism of guanylin and describes for the first time renal effects induced by a member of the Bowman-Birk family of protease inhibitors.

Guanilina e uroguanilina são peptídeos pequenos, ricos em cisteína, envolvidos na regulação da homeostase de fluidos e eletrólitos através da ligação e ativação da guanilato ciclase expressa no intestino e nos rins. A guanilina é menos potente do que a uroguanilina como agente natriurético e é degradada in vitro pela quimiotripsina devido a características estruturais únicas no domínio bioativo do peptídeo. Portanto o objetivo deste trabalho foi verificar se a guanilina é degradada por proteases tipo quimiotripsina, presentes na membrana da borda em escova dos rins. Para esta investigação, foi usado o modelo do rim isolado de rato perfundido. A Guanilina (0,2 µM) não induziu mudanças na função renal. Entretanto, quando pré-tratada com inibidor de tripsina e de quimiotripsina de black-eyed pea (BTCI - 1,0 µM; guanilina - 0,2 µM) promoveu um aumento no fluxo urinário (deltaUF de 0,25 ± 0,09 mL.g-1/min, P < 0,05) e na excreção de Na+ ( por centoDENa+ de 18,20 ± 2,17, P < 0,05). BTCI (1,0 µM) também aumenta por centoENa+ (de 22,8 ± 1,30 a 34,4 ± 3,48, P < 0,0590 minutos). Além disto, BTCI (3,0 µM) induziu um aumento da taxa de filtração glomerular (GFR; de 0,96 ± 0,02 para 1,28 ± 0,02 mL.g-1/min, P < 0,05, 60 minutos). O presente trabalho sugere fortemente que proteases semelhantes à quimiotripsina desempenham um papel no metabolismo renal de guanilinas e descreve, pela primeira vez, os efeitos renais induzidos por um membro da família de inibidores de proteases do tipo Bowman-Birk.

The role of indomethacin and tezosentan on renal effects induced by Bothrops moojeni Lys49 myotoxin I.

Renal changes determined by Lys49 myotoxin I (BmTx I), isolated from Bothrops moojeni are well known. The scope of the present study was to investigate the possible mechanisms involved in the production of these effects by using indomethacin (10 microg/mL), a non-selective inhibitor of cyclooxygenase, and tezosentan (10 microg/mL), an endothelin antagonist. By means of the method of mesenteric vascular bed, it has been observed that B. moojeni myotoxin (5 microg/mL) affects neither basal perfusion pressure nor phenylephrine-preconstricted vessels. This fact suggests that the increase in renal perfusion pressure and in renal vascular resistance did not occur by a direct effect on renal vasculature. Isolated kidneys from Wistar rats, weighing 240-280 g, were perfused with Krebs-Henseleit solution. The infusion of BmTx-I increased perfusion pressure, renal vascular resistance, urinary flow and glomerular filtration rate. Sodium, potassium and chloride tubular transport was reduced after addition of BmTx-I. Indomethacin blocked the effects induced by BmTx-I on perfusion pressure and renal vascular resistance, however, it did not revert the effect on urinary flow and sodium, potassium and chloride tubular transport. The alterations of glomerular filtration rate were inhibited only at 90 min of perfusion. The partial blockade exerted by indomethacin treatment showed that prostaglandins could have been important mediators of BmTx-I renal effects, but the participation of other substances cannot be excluded. The blockage of all renal alterations observed after tezosentan treatment support the hypothesis that endothelin is the major substance involved in the renal pathophysiologic alterations promoted by the Lys49 PLA(2) myotoxin I, isolated from B. moojeni. In conclusion, the rather intense renal effects promoted by B. moojeni myotoxin-I were probably caused by the release of renal endothelin, interfering with the renal parameters studied.

Renal and antibacterial effects induced by myotoxin I and II isolated from Bothrops jararacussu venom.

Bothrops jararacussu myotoxin I (BthTx-I; Lys 49) and II (BthTX-II; Asp 49) were purified by ion-exchange chromatography and reverse phase HPLC. In this work we used the isolated perfused rat kidney method to evaluate the renal effects of B. jararacussu myotoxins I (Lys49 PLA2) and II (Asp49 PLA2) and their possible blockage by indomethacin. BthTX-I (5 microg/ml) and BthTX-II (5 microg/ml) increased perfusion pressure (PP; ct120=110.28+/-3.70 mmHg; BthTX I=171.28+/-6.30*mmHg; BthTX II=175.50+/-7.20*mmHg), renal vascular resistance (RVR; ct120=5.49+/-0.54 mmHg/ml.g(-1)min(-1); BthTX I=8.62+/-0.37*mmHg/ml g(-1)min(-1); BthTX II=8.9+/-0.36*mmHg/ml g(-1)min(-1)), urinary flow (UF; ct(120)=0.14+/-0.01ml g(-1)min(-1); BthTX I=0.32+/-0.05*ml g(-1)min(-1); BthTX II=0.37+/-0.01*ml g(-1)min(-1)) and glomerular filtration rate (GFR; ct120=0.72+/-0.10 ml g(-1)min(-1); BthTX I=0.85+/-0.13*ml g(-1)min(-1); BthTX II=1.22+/-0.28*ml g(-1)min(-1)). In contrast decreased the percent of sodium tubular transport (%TNa(+); ct(120)=79,76+/-0.56; BthTX I=62.23+/-4.12*; BthTX II=70.96+/-2.93*) and percent of potassium tubular transport (%TK(+);ct120=66.80+/-3.69; BthTX I=55.76+/-5.57*; BthTX II=50.86+/-6.16*). Indomethacin antagonized the vascular, glomerular and tubular effects promoted by BthTX I and it's partially blocked the effects of BthTX II. In this work also evaluated the antibacterial effects of BthTx-I and BthTx-II against Xanthomonas axonopodis. pv. passiflorae (Gram-negative bacteria) and we observed that both PLA2 showed antibacterial activity. Also we observed that proteins Also we observed that proteins chemically modified with 4-bromophenacyl bromide (rho-BPB) decrease significantly the antibacterial effect of both PLA2. In conclusion, BthTx I and BthTX II caused renal alteration and presented activity antimicrobial. The indomethacin was able to antagonize totally the renal effects induced by BthTx I and partially the effects promoted by BthTx II, suggesting involvement of inflammatory mediators in the renal effects caused by myotoxins. In the other hand, other effects could be independently of the enzymatic activity of the BthTX II and the C-terminal domain could be involved in both effects promoted for PLA2.

Thalidomide and pentoxifylline block the renal effects of supernatants of macrophages activated with Crotalus durissus cascavella venom

Because thalidomide and pentoxifylline inhibit the synthesis and release of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), we determined the effect of these drugs on the renal damage induced by supernatants of macrophages activated with Crotalus durissus cascavella venom in order to identify the role of TNF-alpha in the process. Rat peritoneal macrophages were collected with RPMI medium and stimulated in vitro with C.d. cascavella venom (10 µg/ml) in the absence and presence of thalidomide (15 µM) or pentoxifylline (500 µM) for 1 h and washed and kept in culture for 2 h. Supernatant (1 ml) was tested on an isolated perfused rat kidney (N = 6 for each group). The first 30 min of each experiment were used as control. The supernatant was added to the perfusion system. All experiments lasted 120 min. The toxic effect of the preparation of venom-stimulated macrophages on renal parameters was determined. At 120 min, thalidomide (Thalid) and pentoxifylline (Ptx) inhibited (P < 0.05) the increase in perfusion pressure caused by the venom (control = 114.0 ± 1.3; venom = 137.1 ± 1.5; Thalid = 121.0 ± 2.5; Ptx = 121.4 ± 4.0 mmHg), renal vascular resistance (control = 4.5 ± 0.2; venom = 7.3 ± 0.6; Thalid = 4.5 ± 0.9; Ptx = 4.8 ± 0.6 mmHg/ml g-1 min-1), urinary flow (control = 0.23 ± 0.001; venom = 0.44 ± 0.01; Thalid = 0.22 ± 0.007; Ptx = 0.21 ± 0.009 ml g-1 min-1), glomerular filtration rate (control = 0.72 ± 0.06; venom = 1.91 ± 0.11; Thalid = 0.75 ± 0.04; Ptx = 0.77 ± 0.05 ml g-1 min-1) and the decrease in percent tubular sodium transport (control = 77.0 ± 0.9; venom = 73.9 ± 0.66; Thalid = 76.6 ± 1.1; Ptx = 81.8 ± 2.0 percent), percent tubular chloride transport (control = 77.1 ± 1.2; venom = 71.4 ± 1.1; Thalid = 77.6 ± 1.7; Ptx = 76.8 ± 1.2 percent), and percent tubular potassium transport (control = 72.7 ± 1.1; venom = 63.0 ± 1.1; Thalid = 72.6 ± 1.0; Ptx = 74.8 ± 1.0 percent), 30 min before and during the stimulation of macrophages with C.d. cascavella venom. These data suggest the participation of TNF-alpha in the renal effects induced by supernatant of macrophages activated with C.d. cascavella venom.

Thalidomide and pentoxifylline block the renal effects of supernatants of macrophages activated with Crotalus durissus cascavella venom.

Because thalidomide and pentoxifylline inhibit the synthesis and release of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), we determined the effect of these drugs on the renal damage induced by supernatants of macrophages activated with Crotalus durissus cascavella venom in order to identify the role of TNF-alpha in the process. Rat peritoneal macrophages were collected with RPMI medium and stimulated in vitro with C.d. cascavella venom (10 micro g/ml) in the absence and presence of thalidomide (15 micro M) or pentoxifylline (500 micro M) for 1 h and washed and kept in culture for 2 h. Supernatant (1 ml) was tested on an isolated perfused rat kidney (N = 6 for each group). The first 30 min of each experiment were used as control. The supernatant was added to the perfusion system. All experiments lasted 120 min. The toxic effect of the preparation of venom-stimulated macrophages on renal parameters was determined. At 120 min, thalidomide (Thalid) and pentoxifylline (Ptx) inhibited (P < 0.05) the increase in perfusion pressure caused by the venom (control = 114.0 +/- 1.3; venom = 137.1 +/- 1.5; Thalid = 121.0 +/- 2.5; Ptx = 121.4 +/- 4.0 mmHg), renal vascular resistance (control = 4.5 +/- 0.2; venom = 7.3 +/- 0.6; Thalid = 4.5 +/- 0.9; Ptx = 4.8 +/- 0.6 mmHg/ml g-1 min-1), urinary flow (control = 0.23 +/- 0.001; venom = 0.44 +/- 0.01; Thalid = 0.22 +/- 0.007; Ptx = 0.21 +/- 0.009 ml g-1 min-1), glomerular filtration rate (control = 0.72 +/- 0.06; venom = 1.91 +/- 0.11; Thalid = 0.75 +/- 0.04; Ptx = 0.77 +/- 0.05 ml g-1 min-1) and the decrease in percent tubular sodium transport (control = 77.0 +/- 0.9; venom = 73.9 +/- 0.66; Thalid = 76.6 +/- 1.1; Ptx = 81.8 +/- 2.0%), percent tubular chloride transport (control = 77.1 +/- 1.2; venom = 71.4 +/- 1.1; Thalid = 77.6 +/- 1.7; Ptx = 76.8 +/- 1.2%), and percent tubular potassium transport (control = 72.7 +/- 1.1; venom = 63.0 +/- 1.1; Thalid = 72.6 +/- 1.0; Ptx = 74.8 +/- 1.0%), 30 min before and during the stimulation of macrophages with C.d. cascavella venom. These data suggest the participation of TNF-alpha in the renal effects induced by supernatant of macrophages activated with C.d. cascavella venom.

Microcystin-LR promote intestinal secretion of water and electrolytes in rats.

We showed previously that exposure to microcystin-LR causes renal toxic effects in isolated perfused rat kidney, and that inflammatory mediators from supernatants of macrophages stimulated by microcystin-LR are involved in this process. The aim of this research was to examine water and electrolytes secretion in vivo, induced by microcystin-LR and supernatant of macrophages stimulated for this toxin (SUP.MphiS + MCLR), using perfused rat ileal segment and ligated intestinal loop models. We found microcystin-LR at 1 microg/ml (0.09 +/- 0.003* vs. control 0.07 +/- 0.001 g of secretion/2 cm of loop; P < 0.05*) and the SUP.MphiS + MCLR after 18 h postinoculation (0.10 +/- 0.003 vs. control 0.03 +/- 0.002 g/cm) caused intestinal secretion. In addition, microcystin-LR caused significant sodium secretion (-2.18 +/- 0.72* vs. control 2.18 +/- 0.50 microEq g(-1) min(-1)), potassium (-0.26 +/- 0.04* vs. control 0.32 +/- 0.03 microEq g(-1) min(-1)), chloride (MCLR = -3.29 +/- 1.93* vs. control 0.88 +/- 1.25 microEq g(-1) min(-1)) and water (-0.012 +/- 0.004* vs. control 0.002 +/- 0.002 ml g(-1) min(-1)). We also demonstrated SUP.MphiS + MCLR to induce intestinal secretion of electrolytes (sodium, potassium, chloride) and water. These findings suggested that microcystin-LR and lamina propria macrophages-derived mediators are able to induce intestinal secretion in vivo, probably via inhibition of protein phosphatase.

Effects of Thalassophryne nattereri fish venom in isolated perfused rat kidney.

Thalassophryne nattereri, popularly known as Niquim, is a venomous fish responsible for many accidents in fishermen in the Northeast of Brazil. The effects of T. nattereri venom on renal physiology has not been tested. Isolated kidneys from Wistar rats of 240-280 g weight were perfused with Krebs-Henseleit solution containing 6g% of previously dialyzed bovine serum albumin. The effects of Niquim venom were studied on the perfusion pressure (PP), renal vascular resistance (RVR), urinary flow (UF), glomerular filtration rate (GFR), percent of sodium tubular transport (%TNa(+)), percent of potassium tubular transport (%TK(+)) and percent of chloride tubular transport (%TCl(-)). The venom of T. nattereri (0.3, 1.0, and 3.0 microg/ml) was always added to the system 30 minutes after the beginning of each experiment (n=6). All experiments were preceded by 30 minutes internal control period and an external control group, where kidneys were perfused with only Krebs-Henseleit solution. All three doses tested promoted increases in PP and RVR. The first two doses also increased GFR and UF. The higher dose promoted decreases in GFR, UF, %TNa(+), %TK(+), %TCl(-). In the treated groups we observed hyalin casts inside all tubules and proteinaceous material in the urinary space. We conclude that the effects resulted from niquim venom agents that promoted a direct effect in kidney cells causing the release of vasoactive factors.