Low temperature Ga surface diffusion from focused ion beam milled grooves.

Ga diffusion from focused ion beam (FIB) milled grooves has been studied using x-ray photoemission electron microscopy (XPEEM) and mirror electron microscopy (MEM). We analyze the surface chemistry of the FIB structures measuring the Ga presence in the top layers of the milled grooves and morphological defects inside the grooves. The Ga is initially strictly confined to the grooves. However, annealing at temperatures as low as 150 degrees C leads to rapid and significant Ga surface diffusion from the FIB structures. The out-diffused Ga forms a thin layer extending up to several microns laterally in a non-regular pattern. The diffusion is significantly enhanced at small crystallites at the edges of the grooves. We explain the general behavior with an atomic scale model in which interstitial Ga in the milled areas diffuses out and substitutes silanol groups on the surface.

A new multifunctional platform based on high aspect ratio interdigitated NEMS structures.

A multifunctional NEMS platform based on a mass-producible, surface relief grating has been developed and fabricated directly in polymer materials. The pattern consists of high aspect ratio interdigitated nanometer-sized pairs of walls and can be produced in a low-complexity one-step patterning process with nanoimprint lithography. In this paper, we demonstrate the usefulness of the platform primarily by showing an application as a high-sensitivity mass sensor in air. The sensors, which are based on the high frequency resonant response of around 200 MHz, show a mass responsivity of the order of 0.1 Hz/zg per wall at room temperature and in ambient air. Their ability to selectively adsorb airborne target molecules, such as thiols, is also demonstrated. We also show that the same device can function as a varactor for electronic circuits based on its large tunable capacitive range.

Classification of motor commands using a modified self-organising feature map.

In this paper, a control system for an advanced prosthesis is proposed and has been investigated in two different biological systems: (1) the spinal withdrawal reflex system of a rat and (2) voluntary movements in two human males: one normal subject and one subject with a traumatic hand amputation. The small-animal system was used as a model system to test different processing methods for the prosthetic control system. The best methods were then validated in the human set-up. The recorded EMGs were classified using different ANN algorithms, and it was found that a modified self-organising feature map (SOFM) composed of a combination of a Kohonen network and the conscience mechanism algorithm (KNC) was superior in performance to the reference networks (e.g. multi-layer perceptrons) as regards training time, low memory consumption, and simplicity in finding optimal training parameters and architecture. The KNC network classified both experimental set-ups with high accuracy, including five movements for the animal set-up and seven for the human set-up.

Perforated silicon nerve chips with doped registration electrodes: in vitro performance and in vivo operation.

An in vitro model was developed for the study of signal transduction between a Cu-wire, miming a neural signal source, and recording electrodes on perforated silicon chips. Phosphorous doped electrodes were used to achieve an all silicon device. The model was used to study signal amplitude as a function of the spatial position, and distance to the signal source. Recordings of the signal crosstalk to neighboring electrodes on the chips were made. It was found that the amplitude decreased by a factor of two at a distance of 50 microns between the electrode surface and the signal source. The chip electrode signal crosstalk was found to be 6 dB using an external reference electrode. Improvements were accomplished with an on chip reference electrode giving a crosstalk suppression of 20 dB. Impedance analysis showed that doped silicon electrodes displayed similar characteristics as Cu-electrodes at frequencies above 3 kHz. Sieve electrodes were implanted in the rat sciatic nerve and following a 10-week nerve regeneration period the dorsal and ventral (L5) roots in the spinal cord were stimulated. Compound action potentials were recorded via the chip. Stimulating the regenerated sciatic nerve via the sieve electrode also induced lower leg muscle contraction activity.

Quantitation of bacterial adhesion to polymer surfaces by bioluminescence.

Quantitation of microbes adhering to a surface is commonly used in studies of microbial adhesion to different surfaces. We have quantified different staphylococcal strains adhering to polymer surfaces by measuring bacterial ATP (adenosine triphosphate) by bioluminescence. The method is sensitive, having a detection limit of 10(4) bacterial cells. Viable counting of bacterial cells may yield falsely low results due to the presence of "dormant" and adherent bacteria. By using bioluminescence, this can be avoided. Cells of different bacterial species and cells of strains of the same species were shown to differ significantly in their basal ATP content (8.7 x 10(-13) - 5.2 x 10(-22) MATP). The size of adherent and planktonic bacteria decreased with time (0.7 micron-->0.3 micron, 20 days). During incubation in nutrient-poor buffer ("starvation"), the ATP content of adherent bacteria decreased after 24-96 h whereas that of planktonic bacteria was stable over 20 days. The presence of human serum or plasma did not interfere significantly with the test results. Since the ATP concentration of bacterial strains of different species varies and is also influenced by the growth conditions of bacteria (solid or liquid culture medium), a species-specific standard curve has to be established for bacteria grown under the same culture conditions. We conclude that the method is a sensitive tool to quantify adherent bacteria during experiments lasting for less than 6 h and constitutes a valuable method to be used in conjunction with different microscopical techniques.

Rat sciatic nerve regeneration through a micromachined silicon chip.

The capacity of regenerating nerve fibres to grow through a perforated silicon chip was tested using the silicone chamber model for nerve regeneration. The chips were fabricated as circular membranes, 4 mm in diameter, thickness 60 microns, with a perforated area, 2 mm in diameter, in the centre. Three types of chips were fabricated utilizing anisotropic etching. The chips were glued with silicone adhesive between two halves of silicone rubber tubing (total length 8 mm, inner diameter 1.8 mm, outer diameter 3.0 mm) which was used to bridge a 4 mm gap between the proximal and distal nerve stumps of a transected rat sciatic nerve. The capacity of regenerating nerve fibres to grow through the holes of the chip was analysed by light and scanning electron microscopy after 4 or 16 weeks of regeneration. Furthermore, the muscle contractility force of the gastrocnemius muscle was measured after 16 weeks of regeneration and compared as a percentage of the contralateral uninjured side. Nerves generated through chips with hole diameters of 10 or 50 microns were morphological and functional failures. The nerve structures distal to chips with hole diameters of 100 microns contained many myelinated nerve fibres in a minifascicular pattern after both 4 and 16 weeks of regeneration. The muscle contractility force was 56% of that of contralateral control muscles.

Protein depositions on one hydrocephalus shunt and on fifteen temporary ventricular catheters.

Biomaterials are commonly used in modern medicine. Proteins are adsorbed to the surface of the biomaterial immediately after insertion. This report demonstrates the presence of adsorbed proteins in one infected cerebrospinal shunt from a child with hydrocephalus and on fifteen temporary ventricular catheters from adult patients with spontaneous or traumatic brain injuries. Depositions of vitronectin, fibrinogen and thrombospondin-fibronectin to some extent--on the shunt surface was imaged by field-emission scanning electron microscopy. Vitronectin, fibronectin, fibrinogen, and thrombospondin on the ventricular catheters were shown with radio-actively labelled antibodies. Furthermore, protein adsorption from human cerebrospinal fluid to heparinized and unheparinized polymers was studied under flowing conditions in vitro. On heparinized polymer, significantly reduced levels of vitronectin, fibronectin, and thrombospondin were exposed, as measured after 4 hours in vitro perfusion. After 24 hours perfusion, the differences in protein exposition between heparinized and unheparinized polymers were substantially reduced.

Adhesion of coagulase-negative staphylococci and adsorption of plasma proteins to heparinized polymer surfaces.

Protease treatment of cells of coagulase-negative staphylococci reduced the adhesion of bacteria to heparinized polyethylene preadsorbed with serum. Fibronectin (Fn), fibrinogen (Fg), vitronectin, complement factor C3c, plasminogen, laminin and to a low extent albumin were detected on tridodecylmethylammonium chloride (TDMAC)-heparinized polyvinyl chloride (PVC) catheters extirpated from the circulation of patients. Using a perfusion model we show that during the first hours of perfusion with human plasma, Fn and Vn dominate, whereas after 22 h of perfusion Fg is the dominant protein. Field emission scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy studies on TDMAC-heparinized catheters as well as on end-point attached heparinized PVC catheters indicate that quantitatively more Fg than Fn is exposed on these surfaces after prolonged exposure (> 22 h) to human plasma.