Aneuploidy Causes Non-genetic Individuality.

Phenotypic variability is a hallmark of diseases involving chromosome gains and losses, such as Down syndrome and cancer. Allelic variances have been thought to be the sole cause of this heterogeneity. Here, we systematically examine the consequences of gaining and losing single or multiple chromosomes to show that the aneuploid state causes non-genetic phenotypic variability. Yeast cell populations harboring the same defined aneuploidy exhibit heterogeneity in cell-cycle progression and response to environmental perturbations. Variability increases with degree of aneuploidy and is partly due to gene copy number imbalances, suggesting that subtle changes in gene expression impact the robustness of biological networks and cause alternate behaviors when they occur across many genes. As inbred trisomic mice also exhibit variable phenotypes, we further propose that non-genetic individuality is a universal characteristic of the aneuploid state that may contribute to variability in presentation and treatment responses of diseases caused by aneuploidy.

Structural and Functional Characterization of Programmed Ribosomal Frameshift Signals in West Nile Virus Strains Reveals High Structural Plasticity Among cis-Acting RNA Elements.

West Nile virus (WNV) is a prototypical emerging virus for which no effective therapeutics currently exist. WNV uses programmed -1 ribosomal frameshifting (-1 PRF) to synthesize the NS1' protein, a C terminally extended version of its non-structural protein 1, the expression of which enhances neuro-invasiveness and viral RNA abundance. Here, the NS1' frameshift signals derived from four WNV strains were investigated to better understand -1 PRF in this quasispecies. Sequences previously predicted to promote -1 PRF strongly promote this activity, but frameshifting was significantly more efficient upon inclusion of additional 3' sequence information. The observation of different rates of -1 PRF, and by inference differences in the expression of NS1', may account for the greater degrees of pathogenesis associated with specific WNV strains. Chemical modification and mutational analyses of the longer and shorter forms of the -1 PRF signals suggests dynamic structural rearrangements between tandem stem-loop and mRNA pseudoknot structures in two of the strains. A model is suggested in which this is employed as a molecular switch to fine tune the relative expression of structural to non-structural proteins during different phases of the viral replication cycle.

Ribosomal protein uS19 mutants reveal its role in coordinating ribosome structure and function.

Prior studies identified allosteric information pathways connecting functional centers in the large ribosomal subunit to the decoding center in the small subunit through the B1a and B1b/c intersubunit bridges in yeast. In prokaryotes a single SSU protein, uS13, partners with H38 (the A-site finger) and uL5 to form the B1a and B1b/c bridges respectively. In eukaryotes, the SSU component was split into 2 separate proteins during the course of evolution. One, also known as uS13, participates in B1b/c bridge with uL5 in eukaryotes. The other, called uS19 is the SSU partner in the B1a bridge with H38. Here, polyalanine mutants of uS19 involved in the uS19/uS13 and the uS19/H38 interfaces were used to elucidate the important amino acid residues involved in these intersubunit communication pathways. Two key clusters of amino acids were identified: one located at the junction between uS19 and uS13, and a second that appears to interact with the distal tip of H38. Biochemical analyses reveal that these mutations shift the ribosomal rotational equilibrium toward the unrotated state, increasing ribosomal affinity for tRNAs in the P-site and for ternary complex in the A-site, and inhibit binding of the translocase, eEF2. These defects in turn affect specific aspects of translational fidelity. These findings suggest that uS19 plays a critical role as a conduit of information exchange between the large and small ribosomal subunits directly through the B1a, and indirectly through the B1b/c bridges.

Ribosomes in the balance: structural equilibrium ensures translational fidelity and proper gene expression.

At equilibrium, empty ribosomes freely transit between the rotated and un-rotated states. In the cell, the binding of two translation elongation factors to the same general region of the ribosome stabilizes one state over the other. These stabilized states are resolved by expenditure of energy in the form of GTP hydrolysis. A prior study employing mutants of a late assembling peripheral ribosomal protein suggested that ribosome rotational status determines its affinity for elongation factors, and hence translational fidelity and gene expression. Here, mutants of the early assembling integral ribosomal protein uL2 are used to test the generality of this hypothesis. rRNA structure probing analyses reveal that mutations in the uL2 B7b bridge region shift the equilibrium toward the rotated state, propagating rRNA structural changes to all of the functional centers of ribosome. Structural disequilibrium unbalances ribosome biochemically: rotated ribosomes favor binding of the eEF2 translocase and disfavor that of the elongation ternary complex. This manifests as specific translational fidelity defects, impacting the expression of genes involved in telomere maintenance. A model is presented describing how cyclic intersubunit rotation ensures the unidirectionality of translational elongation, and how perturbation of rotational equilibrium affects specific aspects of translational fidelity and cellular gene expression.

Sequestration of Sup35 by aggregates of huntingtin fragments causes toxicity of [PSI+] yeast.

Expression of huntingtin fragments with 103 glutamines (HttQ103) is toxic in yeast containing either the [PIN(+)] prion, which is the amyloid form of Rnq1, or [PSI(+)] prion, which is the amyloid form of Sup35. We find that HttQP103, which has a polyproline region at the C-terminal end of the polyQ repeat region, is significantly more toxic in [PSI(+)] yeast than in [PIN(+)], even though HttQP103 formed multiple aggregates in both [PSI(+)] and [PIN(+)] yeast. This toxicity was only observed in the strong [PSI(+)] variant, not the weak [PSI(+)] variant, which has more soluble Sup35 present than the strong variant. Furthermore, expression of the MC domains of Sup35, which retains the C-terminal domain of Sup35, but lacks the N-terminal prion domain, almost completely rescued HttQP103 toxicity, but was less effective in rescuing HttQ103 toxicity. Therefore, the toxicity of HttQP103 in yeast containing the [PSI(+)] prion is primarily due to sequestration of the essential protein, Sup35.