Drugs and the pleura.

PURPOSE: To identify the drugs associated with pleural disease and to review the clinical, radiographic, and pleural fluid findings that occur, the natural history of the pleural reaction, and the response to therapy. DATA SOURCES: English-language articles published from January 1966 through April 1998 were identified through searches of the MEDLINE database, selective bibliographies, and personal files. DATA EXTRACTION: Case reports, letters, and review articles were assessed for relevancy. Reports of drug-associated pleural effusion, pleuritis, and/or pleural thickening were analyzed. Drug effect was believed to be causal when exposure induced pleural disease, when the pleural response remitted on discontinuation of the drug, and when the pleural disease recurred with reexposure. Drug association was inferred when the pleural disease occurred following drug exposure and remitted after drug discontinuation. The incidence, clinical presentation, dose and duration of drug therapy, chest radiographic findings, pleural fluid analysis, and response to therapy were recorded. CONCLUSIONS: A relatively small number of drugs were found to induce pleural disease when compared to the number of drugs implicated in causing disease of the lung parenchyma. Treatment of drug-induced pleural disease consists of drug therapy withdrawal and corticosteroids for refractory cases. Knowledge of the potential of drug-induced pleural disease will provide a clinical advantage to the physician and should lead to decreased morbidity and economic burden for the patient by avoidance of further diagnostic testing.

The relationship between sleep and sudden infant death.

Infants epidemiologically at high risk for SIDS demonstrate a variety of abnormalities in sleep-state organization, maturation, and sleep-state modulation of cardio-respiratory control mechanisms. These involve both the REM and quiet-sleep states and are seen in twins who have had no evidence of clinical cardio-respiratory compromise during infancy as well as in near-miss infants who have suffered serious cardio-respiratory failure. Although these infants have higher levels of REM sleep around 40 weeks, of special concern is the decrease in the maturation of the quiet system, which becomes evident after 44 weeks, and the reported quiet-sleep abnormalities in reflex control of respiration and arousal. The source of these abnormalities is environmental rather than genetic and most likely occurs prenatally. During the critical period for SIDS, infant sleep begins to coalesce from a series of naps to more prolonged night time sleep periods that last up to 8 hours. We believe that the ability to maintain physiologic homeostasis during prolonged sleep is a challenge facing infants who are epidemiologically at risk for sudden infant death. The challenge facing sleep research is the more complete understanding of the relationship between prolonged inhibition, homeostasis, arousal, and development.

Effects of Maine's 1981 and Massachusetts' 1982 driving-under-the-influence legislation.

In 1981, Maine passed a drunk driving law with mandatory penalties and a new civil charge to increase the conviction rate. One year later, Massachusetts increased drunk driving penalties, particularly for repeat offenders and intoxicated drivers involved in fatal crashes. In Maine, single-vehicle nighttime fatal crashes declined 22 per cent the year before passage of the law, and 33 per cent the year after. Maine's rates returned to pre-law levels by the third post-law year. Prior to Massachusetts' new law, single-vehicle nighttime and overall fatal crashes there also declined 20% and 22%, whereas after this law fatal crash rates did not decline further compared with the pre-law year or other New England states. Pre- and post-law surveys indicate that both laws were followed by some increases in public perceptions that drunk drivers stopped by police would be arrested, convicted, and receive automatic penalties. But, few believed it was very likely that drunk drivers would be stopped. For only two of three years studied after Maine's law did more people there report decisions not to drive because they had drunk too much. In Massachusetts, reported driving after heavy drinking declined as much the year before as the three years after its law.

Maternal marijuana use and neonatal outcome: uncertainty posed by self-reports.

To assess the validity of self-reported marijuana use during pregnancy, this study randomly allocated pregnant women into a group who were told their urine would be tested for marijuana, alcohol, and other drugs and another group not so tested. Women told they would be tested reported more marijuana use during pregnancy than did untested women. Moreover, urine assays identified more women who used marijuana during pregnancy than were willing to admit it in the interview even after being told their urine would be tested. No differences in reported drinking or cigarette smoking during pregnancy were found between tested and untested women.

Impact of maternal work outside the home during pregnancy on neonatal outcome.

The impact of mothers' work during pregnancy upon neonatal outcome has not been fully elucidated. A study of maternal health habits and neonatal outcome conducted from 1977 to 1979 at Boston City Hospital assessed the effects of paid work outside the home during pregnancy, particularly third trimester work in a standing position, upon duration of gestation and intrauterine growth, while controlling for potentially confounding variables. Postpartum, 1,690 low-income women were interviewed to provide detailed information on their sociodemographic and health characteristics. Of the 1,507 women whose work status during pregnancy could be classified, 55% did not perform paid work outside the home or attend school, 7% worked into the third trimester in a standing position, and 38% had other work histories or attended school. Infants were examined according to a standard protocol by pediatricians blind to mothers' work history. There was no significant relationship between the mothers' work history during pregnancy and the infants' length of gestation, weight, or head circumference at birth, when confounding variables were controlled statistically by multiple regression analyses. However, women who worked in a standing position into the third trimester delivered infants who were longer than infants born either to mothers with other work histories or to mothers who did not work or attend school. Healthy women with uncomplicated low-risk pregnancies who feel well enough to attend school or work during pregnancy, even in a job requiring some standing, may do so without fear that their infant will suffer shortened gestation or impaired intrauterine growth.

Mandatory seatbelt law support and opposition in New England--a survey.

Less than one-fifth of the U.S. population consistently wears automobile seatbelts. Automatic seatbelts or air bags will be required in all new cars, unless States whose total population equals two-thirds of the nation's adopt mandatory seatbelt use laws by 1989, according to the U.S. Department of Transportation. In July 1984, New York State passed the first mandatory seatbelt law in the nation, followed by New Jersey, Illinois, Missouri, Michigan, and New Mexico. A telephone survey of 2,982 randomly selected drivers examined belt use and support for mandatory belt use laws in the six New England States. Drivers with little education and low income, younger drivers, and drivers who drove after heavy drinking or marijuana use, or both, were least likely to wear seatbelts. Beliefs that seatbelts are not effective in reducing injury risk and are uncomfortable were more common among those not wearing belts. Sixty percent of drivers favored a mandatory seatbelt use law. The most important predictors of opposition to a belt use law were beliefs that seatbelts are ineffective, inconvenient, and uncomfortable. Opposition was also more likely among persons who reported that they drove after marijuana use, or heavy drinking, or both, drove more miles per year, exhibited a low frequency of seatbelt use, and perceived a low probability of personal crash involvement.

Sudden death in the Framingham Heart Study. Differences in incidence and risk factors by sex and coronary disease status.

The frequency of and risk factors for sudden death in men and women with and without prior coronary heart disease were investigated in the population-based Framingham Heart Study. The cohort initially consisted of 2,336 men and 2,873 women. Over 26 years, 146 men died suddenly (46% of all male coronary heart disease deaths). A total of 69 men without and 77 men with prior evidence of coronary heart disease were victims of sudden death. Out of 50 sudden deaths in women (34% of female coronary heart disease deaths), 34 occurred in women without prior coronary disease and 16 in women with prior coronary disease. Incidence rates for sudden death were substantially greater in men than in women and in both men and women with, as opposed to without, prior coronary heart disease. The classic coronary heart disease risk factors, left ventricular hypertrophy, age, serum cholesterol, number of cigarettes smoked daily, relative weight, and systolic blood pressure, emerged from multiple logistic regression analysis of sudden death in men without prior coronary heart disease. However, in men with prior coronary disease, only left ventricular hypertrophy and intraventricular block, and no other classic risk factors, were positive predictors of sudden death. For women without prior coronary disease, significant factors were age, vital capacity, hematocrit, serum cholesterol (marginal), and serum glucose (marginal). In women with prior coronary disease, only hematocrit was a consistent predictor. Reasons for the substantial differences in sudden death risk profiles between men and women are not entirely clear, but limitations in data may partially account for these sex differences.

Legislation raising the legal drinking age in Massachusetts from 18 to 20: effect on 16 and 17 year-olds.

The 1979 Massachusetts law raising the legal drinking age from 18 to 20 is examined--the effects on the drinking, drinking and driving, and nonfatal and fatal crash involvement of 16-17 yr-olds, teenagers immediately younger than those targeted by the law. Data from Massachusetts are compared with those from New York State, where the drinking age remained at 18. A total of 3 yr of survey data from the two states and 6 yr of data from the Department of Transportation's Fatal Accident Reporting System provide for pre- and postlaw comparisons. The findings suggest that raising the drinking age had minimal effects on the drinking behavior of Massachusetts teenagers. Although there was a significant reduction in nonfatal crashes in Massachusetts compared with New York, no decline in single-vehicle nighttime fatal crashes or in overall fatal crashes was observed. It is suggested that changes in the drinking age may offer some reduction in teenage driving after drinking and traffic crash involvement, but that teenage drinking and driving after drinking remain serious problems even in states that raise their drinking ages.

Neonatal outcome: is adolescent pregnancy a risk factor?

It has been widely reported that adolescent mothers are more likely to experience poor pregnancy outcome, especially low-birth-weight and/or premature infants. Recent data suggest that this poor outcome may be attributed to confounding health and social characteristics of adolescent mothers. A study of maternal health and neonatal development at Boston City Hospital provided an opportunity to assess whether adolescent mothers deliver infants with poorer outcomes at birth than nonadolescents independent of numerous social and health differences between adolescent and nonadolescent mothers. A total of 275 infants of primiparous adolescents (aged 13 to 18 years) were compared at birth with 423 infants of primiparous nonadolescents. Size at birth, length of gestation, Apgar scores, and birth trauma were examined. The only statistically significant difference between the two groups was that adolescent mothers delivered infants whose mean weight was 94 g less (P less than .03) than infants of nonadolescent mothers. Multiple and logistic regression analyses demonstrated that several health and social factors, but not adolescent status, were independently associated with the measures of adverse infant outcome. A subsequent regression analysis demonstrated similarly that being a younger adolescent (16 years and younger) did not independently predict low birth weight at delivery or other measured adverse neonatal outcomes. These data support the view that health and social factors are more important to poor fetal outcome among primiparous mothers than adolescent status. Some of the health factors are amenable to clinical intervention.

Maternal cigarette smoking, psychoactive substance use, and infant Apgar scores.

A study of 1,709 mother/child pairs at Boston City Hospital examined whether maternal cigarette smoking, drinking, or the use of other psychoactive substances was associated with low infant Apgar scores. The potential confounding effects of other labor and delivery risks were controlled in the analysis. In contrast to previous reports, univariate and stepwise multiple regression analyses did not identify a significant negative association between cigarette smoking and 1- or 5-minute Apgar scores. None of the substance use variables was significantly associated with low infant Apgar scores at 1 and 5 minutes. Other labor and delivery risks, such as short length of gestation, abnormal delivery presentation, placental abnormalities, nuchal cord, and exposure to general anesthesia during delivery, were associated with low Apgar scores.

Effects of maternal drinking and marijuana use on fetal growth and development.

A study of 1,690 mother/child pairs at Boston City Hospital was conducted to assess the impact of maternal alcohol consumption on fetal development when confounding variables were controlled. Level of maternal drinking prior to pregnancy was associated with shorter duration of gestation. Lower maternal weight change, history of maternal illnesses, cigarette smoking, and marijuana use, however, were more consistently related to adverse fetal growth and development. New findings in this study include a negative association between maternal marijuana use during pregnancy and fetal growth. Also when confounding variables were controlled, women who used marijuana during pregnancy were five times more likely to deliver infants with features considered compatible with the fetal alcohol syndrome.

Bendectin and fetal development. A study of Boston City Hospital.

As part of a prospective study investigating maternal characteristics and habits during pregnancy and their impact on fetal development, 1,690 mother/infant pairs were studied. Of the mothers, 375 reported using Bendectin during pregnancy. Multivariate analyses examining birth weight, length, head circumference, gestational age, and congenital malformations as dependent variables demonstrated no associations between Bendectin exposure and adverse fetal outcome.

Apnea and sleep state in infants with nasopharyngitis.

Having a mild upper respiratory tract infection does not change the sleep rate proportions or total sleep time of an infant. However, infants with colds exhibit some sleep state specific alterations in sleep apnea. At 40, 44, and 48 weeks postconception, the number of respiratory pauses of 2 to 4.9 seconds and of 5 to 9.9 seconds duration per 100 minutes of state, during rapid eye movement, and indeterminate sleep are decreased in infants with colds. The absence of this phenomenon at 52 weeks suggests that it is modified by maturation. We hypothesize that the reduction in rapid eye movement and indeterminate sleep apnea is a manifestation of an adaptive response in normal infants, but for infants at risk for the sudden infant death syndrome, this response may be overwhelmed, resulting in increased apnea and, in some instances, sudden infant death.