The Roles of Gender and Sexual Orientation in Predicting Reactions to Suitors: Revealing Intersectional Complexities.

Relatively little is known about how gender and sexual orientation intersect to predict young adults' responses to unwanted romantic and sexual overtures from men and women suitors. To better understand these potential differences, and explore possible mechanisms that explain them, this pre-registered study used an online questionnaire to assess reactions to both hypothetical and recalled suitors among a sample of 855 cisgender heterosexual and gay young adults (18-35) from the United States. Results revealed that gay women and heterosexual men reported the most negative hypothetical reactions to men (versus women) suitors, while gay women, heterosexual men, and heterosexual women all recalled more negative reactions to men than women suitors. Gay men recalled relatively benign reactions to suitors of both genders. A desire to be seen as one's true orientation was a mediating factor for both gay women's and heterosexual men's negative reactions to men suitors. These findings and their potential explanations highlight the complexity of how gender and sexual orientation intersect to shape responses to romantic and sexual overtures from men and women suitors.

A Quasiexperimental Study of the Bystander Plus Program for Changing Rape Culture Beliefs.

Sexual violence is considered a public health crisis and is particularly a problem on college campuses. Efforts for rape prevention at the collegiate level have included decreasing rape myth acceptance and increasing prosocial bystander behaviors. Although bystander models vary in regard to format and target population (e.g., male, female, or combined programs), they hold the same goals and underlying principles: to teach individuals how to effectively, and safely, intervene before, during, and after potential rape scenarios. In line with this research, the current study examined the efficacy of a bystander plus program, that goes beyond single session bystander focused programs to include a stronger focus on culture change and consciousness-raising across two sessions. The program was offered to undergraduate students (n = 23), the intervention group, over two sequential weeks. The first session was based on a modified version of Bringing in the Bystander, called Empowering the Bystander (ETB). ETB is a 60-min interactive session in which presenters provide information and lead discussions and activities aimed to address rape myths, to increase sexual assault survivor empathy, to learn prosocial bystander behaviors, and to increase awareness of rape culture at large. We followed this with a consciousness-raising group called Define It! that asked participants to define and operationalize concepts such as sexual assault and rape culture in their own lives. Students in an introductory psychology course served as a control group (n = 58) and did not receive the intervention. Both students within the intervention and control groups completed demographics and the Rape Culture Inventory (RCI) at pre-, post-, and 1-month postintervention. Results revealed a decrease in personal and perceived college endorsement of rape culture beliefs among intervention versus control participants. We discuss the implications of these results with concern to bystander programming and future directions for bystander plus program development.

Heterosexual People's Reactions to Same-Sex Romantic or Sexual Overtures: The Role of Attitudes About Sexual Orientation and Gender.

Why do some heterosexual people react in a negative manner when pondering or experiencing romantic or sexual overtures from persons of their same-sex, whereas other heterosexual people react more positively? To answer this question, this cross-sectional, correlational study examined individual difference predictors of heterosexual people's responses to romantic or sexual overtures from same-sex persons. Our sample comprised 306 men and 307 women, ages 18-35 years, who were recruited from Mechanical Turk and identified as cisgender and heterosexual. Our hypotheses were premised on the theoretical construct of reactive group distinctiveness. Specifically, we explored predictors of heterosexual individuals' negative perceptions of same-sex overtures. We found that more negative reactions to same-sex overtures were uniquely predicted by old-fashioned sexual prejudice, modern sexual prejudice, and desire to be perceived as gender conforming, via the mediators of social distance from same-sex sexual minority individuals and desire to be perceived as heterosexual. Gender moderated these relationships inconsistently. These findings indicate that two classes of individual differences-sexual prejudice and gender conforming reputation desire-are uniquely associated with heterosexual persons' reactions to overtures from same-sex persons. We explain how these findings evidence the process of reactive group distinctiveness.

An Inductive Analysis of Young Adults' Conceptions of Femininity and Masculinity and Comparison to Established Gender Inventories.

This study provides an analysis of the content of feminine and masculine characteristics/behaviors described in writing by 366 young women and 289 young men from the U.S. Emergent characteristics/behaviors were placed into domains. For both femininity and masculinity, the domains of "physical differences related to sex" and "emphasized physical differences" emerged. For masculinity, additional domains were: "activities and interests focused on the body," "powerful or oriented toward power," and "emotion-control or emotionally-limited." For femininity, additional domains were "lacking power," "orientation to other people," and "emotional." We then compared the characteristics/behaviors and domains we discovered to gender inventories that are commonly used in the contemporary period. The masculine domains focused on physical differences, activities, and interests that emerged from the present study are mostly absent from these masculinity inventories. The domains focused on power and restricted emotion are evident in these inventories, but these inventories do not cover all of the characteristics within our domains. The feminine domains that emerged from the present study are more often covered in these inventories, but some of the specific feminine characteristics we found are not evident in these inventories. Results are discussed in terms of gender role theory, gender inequality, and potential application for qualitative and quantitative inquiries into the construction of gender.

Evaluation of a low-technology system to obtain morphological and mobility trial measurements in dogs and investigation of potential predictors of canine mobility.

OBJECTIVE: To develop a low-technology system that can be used by dog owners to obtain morphological and mobility measurements in companion dogs as candidate components of an eventual canine frailty scale. ANIMALS: 57 adult (≥ 1-year-old) dogs enrolled by 43 owners. PROCEDURES: Morphological measurements of dogs were performed by investigators and dog owners. Dogs participated in timed in-clinic mobility trials across a flat surface (on-leash trial with the owner, on-leash trial with the investigator, and off-leash trial) and on stairs; each trial was repeated 3 times. Owners were asked to conduct a second stair trial at home 2 weeks later. Agreement between owner- and investigator-obtained measurements was assessed with Shrout-Fleiss intraclass correlation coefficients and paired t tests. Age, quartile of projected percentage of mean life span attained (adjusted for body weight), and height were evaluated as predictors of speed and stride length in mobility trials with linear regression and Spearman rank correlation analysis. RESULTS: Agreement between owner- and investigator-obtained morphological measurements was strong. Age was a weak but significant predictor of decreased dog speed in mobility trials (adjusted R2, 0.10 to 0.23). Speed decreased significantly with increasing quartile of projected life span attained. A linear regression model that included height and age predicted dog speed better than models with age or height alone. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Morphological and mobility trial measurements can be obtained by dog owners with minimal training. Low-technology measurements of mobility trial speed offer potential as components in a future scoring scale for canine frailty.

The Role of Self-Efficacy and Identity in Mediating the Effects of STEM Support Experiences.

We report results from two studies testing the Mediation Model of Research Experiences (MMRE), which posits that science (or engineering) self-efficacy and identity as a scientist (or engineer) mediate the association between support programs and students' commitment to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) careers. Study 1 included 502 matriculated and recently graduated undergraduate STEM students. Structural equation modeling analyses indicated that research experience, instrumental mentoring, and involvement in a community of scientists were associated with commitment to a STEM career, mediated through science/engineering self-efficacy and identity as a scientist/engineer. There were few interactions with ethnicity and none with gender. In Study 2, 63 undergraduate students in science/engineering support programs were surveyed with a similar instrument at the beginning and end of their programs. Pre-post analyses indicated that increases over time in community involvement were associated with increases in science/engineering self-efficacy, and increases over time in science/engineering identity were associated with increased commitment to a STEM career. Taken together, these two studies show the importance of psychological processes such as identity and self-efficacy in understanding the specific ways in which science/engineering support programs lead to enhanced commitment to a career in STEM among white and underrepresented minority undergraduate students.

When Heterosexuality is Questioned: Stifling Suspicion Through Public Displays of Heterosexual Identity.

This study examined public heterosexual identity management practices of heterosexual-identified young adults in the United States. Analysis of 415 participants' written narratives indicated that 41% (n = 169) described consciously engaging in public displays of their heterosexual status in relation to suspicion about their sexual orientation. This article describes our findings regarding five aspects of these narratives of suspicion: types of suspicion, causes of suspicion, reasons for concern about suspicion, the types of public displays of heterosexual status employed to quell suspicion, and intended audiences for these displays. Overall, the results indicated that heterosexual identity suspicion is multifaceted, this suspicion serves as a catalyst for public displays of heterosexual status, and the climate of suspicion described by our participants reflects and reinforces contemporary heterosexism.

Outcomes of sexual behaviors among sexual minority youth.

Very little is known about outcomes of sexual behavior for sexual minority youth. In this chapter, I review relevant literature and draw on findings from my own research to initiate an inquiry into this important topic. I begin with a brief overview of the range of sexual behaviors of sexual minority adolescents and young adults. Next, I describe what we know about positive and negative outcomes of sexual behavior among sexual minority youth. This discussion takes into account physical outcomes, psychological and emotional outcomes, and outcomes related to identity development. Lastly, I discuss the limitations of prior research and propose several goals for future research to expand our understanding of this topic.

Interpersonal identity formation in conversations with close friends about dating relationships.

The present study explores how close same-sex friendship groups participate in the co-construction of identities in the interpersonal domain during young adulthood. Participants included 24 same-sex college student friendship triads (12 male and 12 female; 72 total participants) who took part in semi-structured group interviews that elicited stories about conversations with their friends about dating relationship problems. Qualitative thematic analysis revealed five common responses to dating problems evidencing identity work in the context of friends' conversations. These responses included relating the issue to one's own experiences, providing validation and encouragement, joking about the problem, offering advice, and providing concrete instrumental support. Results are interpreted with regard to gender differences and similarities as well as the social context of college and developmental context of emerging adulthood. The findings identify ways in which young adults are actively co-constructing and re-evaluating their interpersonal identities within conversations with close same-sex friends.

Associations between young adults' use of sexually explicit materials and their sexual preferences, behaviors, and satisfaction.

This study examined how levels of sexually explicit material (SEM) use during adolescence and young adulthood were associated with sexual preferences, sexual behaviors, and sexual and relationship satisfaction. Participants included 782 heterosexual college students (326 men and 456 women; M(age) = 19.9) who completed a questionnaire online. Results revealed high frequencies and multiple types and contexts of SEM use, with men's usage rates systematically higher than women's. Regression analyses revealed that both the frequency of SEM use and number of SEM types viewed were uniquely associated with more sexual experience (a higher number of overall and casual sexual intercourse partners, as well as a lower age at first intercourse). Higher frequencies of SEM use were associated with less sexual and relationship satisfaction. The frequency of SEM use and number of SEM types viewed were both associated with higher sexual preferences for the types of sexual practices typically presented in SEM. These findings suggest that SEM use can play a significant role in a variety of aspects of young adults' sexual development processes.

Processes of sexual orientation questioning among heterosexual women.

Because very little is known about heterosexual identity development, this study assesses and describes sexual orientation questioning processes of heterosexual-identified women and offers a comparison of these processes with those employed by their sexual-minority counterparts. Participants included 333 female college students (ages 18-23; M = 19.2): 228 participants primarily identified as "exclusively straight/heterosexual," and 105 participants indicated a sexual-minority identity. Sixty-seven percent of exclusively heterosexual respondents (n = 154) indicated having thought about or questioned their sexual orientation. The processes by which heterosexual participants described questioning their sexual orientation were coded for the presence of five emergent categories using an inductive thematic coding methodology. These five categories included unelaborated questioning (19%), other-sex experiences (16%), exposure to sexual minorities (26%), assessment of same-sex attraction (48%), and evaluations of same-sex behavior (26%). Several unifying and differentiating themes emerged between sexual orientation groups. Results from this study suggest that contemporary young women's heterosexuality is not necessarily an unexamined identity; indeed, the large majority of young women in this sample were deliberately identifying as heterosexual after contemplating alternative possibilities.

A longitudinal study of conversations with parents about sex and dating during college.

Emerging adulthood is a time of sexual and romantic relationship development as well as change in the parent-child relationship. This study provides a longitudinal analysis of 30 young adults' (17 women, 13 men) sexual experiences, attitudes about sexuality and dating, and reported conversations with parents about sexuality and dating from the 1st and 4th years of college. Self-report questionnaires revealed increases in general closeness with parents, increases in sexual and dating experiences, and more sexually permissive as well as more gender stereotyped attitudes. Qualitative analyses of individual interviews indicated a movement from unilateral and restrictive sex-based topics to more reciprocal and relationship-focused conversations over time. Gender analyses revealed that young women reported more restrictive sex messages and young men more positive sex messages. Participants also described increased openness and comfort in talking about sexual topics with both mothers and fathers from the 1st to 4th year of college. Overall, the results suggest that prior findings of increased mutuality with parents during the college years extend to the traditionally taboo topic of sexuality.

Comparing sexual-minority and heterosexual young women's friends and parents as sources of support for sexual issues.

The present study provides a comparative analysis of sexual-minority and heterosexual emerging adult women's experiences seeking support for sexual issues from parents and friends. Participants included 229 college women (88 sexual-minority women; 141 heterosexual women), ranging from 18 to 25 years of age, who provided written responses to an inquiry about a time they went to friends and parents for support for a issue related to their sexuality. Responses indicated that the majority of participants had sought support from either a parent or a friend and that mothers and female friends were more likely involved than fathers or male friends, respectively. Sexual issues that participants reported discussing with parents and friends were inductively grouped into five categories: dating and romantic relationships, sexual behavior, sexual health, identity negotiation, and discrimination and violence. Issues that were discussed differed based on sexual orientation identity and the source of support (parent or friend); they did not differ by age. Participants generally perceived parents and friends' responses as helpful, though sexual-minority participants perceived both parents and friends' responses as less helpful than did heterosexual participants. Overall, results suggest both similarities and differences between sexual-minority and heterosexual young women's experiences seeking support for sexual issues from parents and friends.

"Mostly straight" young women: variations in sexual behavior and identity development.

Researchers have begun to explore and identify various gradations in sexual orientation identity, paying attention to alternative sexual identity categories and attempting to clarify potential subtypes of same-sex sexuality, particularly among women. This study utilizes both quantitative and qualitative data to explore the behavioral experiences and identity development processes among women of a particular sexual identity subtype, "mostly straight." Participants were 349 female college students whose primary sexual identities included exclusively straight, mostly straight, bisexual, and lesbian. Results indicated that, on most behavioral variables, mostly straight women fell directly between and were significantly different from exclusively straight and bisexual/lesbian women. Mostly straight women were also distinct from exclusively straight women but were similar to bisexual women and lesbians on several quantitative measures of identity. Narratives about sexual identity development for mostly straight women revealed the complexities of sexual identity exploration, uncertainty, and commitment within this population. As a whole, this study encourages researchers to begin to recognize and examine mostly straight as a distinct sexual identity subtype in young women.

Channeling Identity: A Study of Storytelling in Conversations Between Introverted and Extraverted Friends.

This narrative study examined the process of personal storytelling between college-age friends who were similarly introverted or extraverted. Participants were 19 introverted and 20 extraverted same-sex pairs (49 percent female) who had been friends for an average of 18 months. Stories emerged spontaneously during 10-minute catch-up conversations. Extraverted friends more often told stories that changed the topic, and more often co-constructed story plots. Introverted friends more often told stories that were embedded in a developing theme, and constructed story plots solo. With regard to content, extraverted friends told stories about romance more so than introverted friends, whose stories more often concerned family/hometown, and older events. The findings suggest that the traits of extraversion and introversion channel the identity-making process.

Assessment of sexual functioning, mental health, and life goals in women with vaginal agenesis.

Vaginal agenesis is a congenital disorder defined by the incomplete formation of the vagina and other reproductive organs, often including the cervix, uterus, and fallopian tubes. For the patient, this frequently means infertility and an underdeveloped vagina with the subsequent difficulty to have vaginal intercourse. The patient with vaginal agenesis and her family then encounter a variety of psychological concerns that must be addressed during diagnosis, including weighing treatment options, managing interventions, and coping with long-term issues following diagnosis and treatment, such as partnership concerns and infertility. In this study, seven patients between the ages of 18 and 34 completed questionnaires assessing demographic information, sexual functioning, mental health, self-esteem, and life goals. Sexual functioning results were highly variable. Participants reported significant emotional reactions at diagnosis as well as anxiety about the disorder, specifically its role in relationships. However, overall, the group showed average levels of mental health and self-esteem. Participants also showed positive coping techniques through conceptualization of life goals.