Seasonal respiratory virus circulation was diminished during the COVID-19 pandemic.

BACKGROUND: Measures introduced during the COVID-19 pandemic intended to address the spread of SARS-CoV-2 may also influence the incidence of other common seasonal respiratory viruses (SRV). This evaluation reports laboratory-confirmed cases of common SRV in a well-defined region of central Canada to address this issue. METHODS: Surveillance data for common non-SARS-CoV-2 SRV in Ottawa, Canada, was provided by the Eastern Ontario Regional Laboratory Association (EORLA) reference virology lab. Weekly reports of the number of positive tests and the proportion that yielded positive results were analyzed from August 26, 2018, to January 2, 2022. RESULTS: A drastic reduction in influenza and other common SRV was observed during the 2020-2021 influenza season in the Ottawa region. Influenza was virtually undetected post-SARS-CoV-2 emergence. Rhinoviruses and enteroviruses were the only viruses that remained relatively unaffected during this period. CONCLUSIONS: We speculated that the introduction of nonpharmaceutical measures including masking to prevent SARS-CoV-2 transmission contributed to the near absence of SRV in the Ottawa region. These measures should remain a key component in addressing spikes in SRV activity and future pandemics.

Ribavirin Does Not Enhance Hepatitis B Virus Nucleotide Antiviral Activity: A Pilot Study.

PURPOSE: There is a need for effective and affordable treatments that achieve hepatitis B virus (HBV) functional cure and prevent long-term complications. The use of immune-modulators combined with HBV antivirals is a promising therapeutic strategy to achieve these goals. Based on ribavirin (RBV) monotherapy data, we hypothesized that RBV could improve virological responses when used in combination with tenofovir.  Methods: In this randomized, open label, controlled pilot trial, we evaluated RBV (n=4) dosed for the initial 24 weeks of treatment versus no RBV (n=4) in tenofovir recipients dosed over 48 weeks.  Results: Although well tolerated and safe in combination with tenofovir, RBV demonstrated no beneficial effects on virologic, biochemical or immunological markers of chronic HBV infection over 48 weeks of serial evaluation.  Conclusions: Our data does not suggest a HBV-specific immunomodulatory effect or an impact of RBV on HBV virological and antigen suppression.

Temporal Dynamics and Evolution of SARS-CoV-2 Demonstrate the Necessity of Ongoing Viral Genome Sequencing in Ontario, Canada.

Genome-wide variation in SARS-CoV-2 reveals evolution and transmission dynamics which are critical considerations for disease control and prevention decisions. Here, we review estimates of the genome-wide viral mutation rates, summarize current COVID-19 case load in the province of Ontario, Canada (5 January 2021), and analyze published SARS-CoV-2 genomes from Ontario (collected prior to 24 November 2020) to test for more infectious genetic variants or lineages. The reported mutation rate (∼10-6 nucleotide [nt]-1 cycle-1) for SARS-CoV-2 is typical for coronaviruses. Analysis of published SARS-CoV-2 genomes revealed that the G614 spike protein mutation has dominated infections in Ontario and that SARS-CoV-2 lineages present in Ontario have not differed significantly in their rate of spread. These results suggest that the SARS-CoV-2 population circulating in Ontario has not changed significantly to date. However, ongoing genome monitoring is essential for identification of new variants and lineages that may contribute to increased viral transmission.

Investigation of Phylogeny and Drug Resistance Mechanisms of Elizabethkingia anophelis Isolated from Blood and Lower Respiratory Tract.

Elizabethkingia species are environmental bacteria associated with opportunistic infections in vulnerable populations. Traditionally, Elizabethkingia meningoseptica was considered the predominant pathogenic species. However, commercial identification systems have routinely misidentified Elizabethkingia anophelis as E. meningoseptica, leading to a mischaracterization of clinical strains and an underestimation of the role of E. anophelis in human disease. Elizabethkingia spp. harbor multidrug resistance (MDR) genes that pose challenges for treatment. Differentiation between Elizabethkingia spp. is particularly important due to differences in antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and epidemiological investigation. In this study, we describe a case of MDR E. anophelis isolated from the blood and lower respiratory tract of a patient who was successfully treated with minocycline. These isolates were initially misidentified by matrix assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight as E. meningoseptica, whereas whole genome sequencing (WGS) confirmed the isolates as E. anophelis with the closest related strain being E. anophelis NUHP1, which was implicated in a 2012 outbreak in Singapore. Several AMR genes (blaBlaB, blaBlaGOB, blaCME, Sul2, erm(F), and catB) were identified by WGS, confirming the mechanisms for MDR. This case emphasizes the utility of WGS for correct speciation, elucidation of resistance genes, and relatedness to other outbreak strains. As E. anophelis is associated with a high mortality and has been found in hospital system sinks, WGS is critically important for determining strain relatedness and tracking outbreaks in the hospital setting.

NLRP3 inflammasome inhibition is disrupted in a group of auto-inflammatory disease CAPS mutations.

Inflammasomes are positioned to rapidly escalate the intensity of inflammation by activating interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-18 and cell death by pyroptosis. However, negative regulation of inflammasomes remains poorly understood, as is the signaling cascade that dampens inflammasome activity. We found that rapid NLRP3 inflammasome activation was directly inhibited by protein kinase A (PKA), which was induced by prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) signaling via the PGE2 receptor E-prostanoid 4 (EP4). PKA directly phosphorylated the cytoplasmic receptor NLRP3 and attenuated its ATPase function. We found that Ser295 in human NLRP3 was critical for rapid inhibition and PKA phosphorylation. Mutations in NLRP3-encoding residues adjacent to Ser295 have been linked to the inflammatory disease CAPS (cryopyrin-associated periodic syndromes). NLRP3-S295A phenocopied the human CAPS mutants. These data suggest that negative regulation at Ser295 is critical for restraining the NLRP3 inflammasome and identify a molecular basis for CAPS-associated NLRP3 mutations.

The NLRP3 Inflammasome Is a Pathogen Sensor for Invasive Entamoeba histolytica via Activation of α5ß1 Integrin at the Macrophage-Amebae Intercellular Junction.

Entamoeba histolytica (Eh) is an extracellular protozoan parasite of humans that invades the colon to cause life-threatening intestinal and extra-intestinal amebiasis. Colonized Eh is asymptomatic, however, when trophozoites adhere to host cells there is a considerable inflammatory response that is critical in the pathogenesis of amebiasis. The host and/or parasite factors that trigger the inflammatory response to invading Eh are not well understood. We recently identified that Eh adherence to macrophages induces inflammasome activation and in the present study we sought to determine the molecular events upon contact that coordinates this response. Here we report that Eh contact-dependent activation of α5ß1 integrin is critical for activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. Eh-macrophage contact triggered recruitment of α5ß1 integrin and NLRP3 into the intercellular junction, where α5ß1 integrin underwent activation by an integrin-binding cysteine protease on the parasite surface, termed EhCP5. As a result of its activation, α5ß1 integrin induced ATP release into the extracellular space through opening of pannexin-1 channels that signalled through P2X7 receptors to deliver a critical co-stimulatory signal that activated the NLRP3 inflammasome. Both the cysteine protease activity and integrin-binding domain of EhCP5 were required to trigger α5ß1 integrin that led to ATP release and NLRP3 inflammasome activation. These findings reveal engagement of α5ß1 integrin across the parasite-host junction is a key regulatory step that initiates robust inflammatory responses to Eh. We propose that α5ß1 integrin distinguishes Eh direct contact and functions with NLRP3 as pathogenicity sensor for invasive Eh infection.

Identification of genes in Thuja plicata foliar terpenoid defenses.

Thuja plicata (western redcedar) is a long-lived conifer species whose foliage is rarely affected by disease or insect pests, but can be severely damaged by ungulate browsing. Deterrence to browsing correlates with high foliar levels of terpenoids, in particular the monoterpenoid α-thujone. Here, we set out to identify genes whose products may be involved in the production of α-thujone and other terpenoids in this species. First, we generated a foliar transcriptome database from which to draw candidate genes. Second, we mapped the storage of thujones and other terpenoids to foliar glands. Third, we used global expression profiling to identify more than 600 genes that are expressed at high levels in foliage with glands, but can either not be detected or are expressed at low levels in a natural variant lacking foliar glands. Fourth, we used in situ RNA hybridization to map the expression of a putative monoterpene synthase to the epithelium of glands and used enzyme assays with recombinant protein of the same gene to show that it produces sabinene, the monoterpene precursor of α-thujone. Finally, we identified candidate genes with predicted enzymatic functions for the conversion of sabinene to α-thujone. Taken together, this approach generated both general resources and detailed functional characterization in the identification of genes of foliar terpenoid biosynthesis in T. plicata.

Entamoeba histolytica cathepsin-like enzymes : interactions with the host gut.

Cysteine proteases of the protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica are key virulence factors involved in overcoming host defences. These proteases are cathepsin-like enzymes with a cathepsin-L like structure, but cathepsin-B substrate specificity. In the host intestine, amoeba cysteine proteases cleave colonic mucins and degrade secretory immunoglobulin (Ig) A and IgG rendering them ineffective. They also act on epithelial tight junctions and degrade the extracellular matrix to promote Cell death. They are involved in the destruction of red blood cells and the evasion of neutrophils and macrophages and they activate pro-inflammatory cytokines IL- 1ß and IL-18. In short, amoeba cysteine proteases manipulate and destroy host defences to facilitate nutrient acquisition, parasite colonization and/or invasion. Strategies to inhibit the activity of amoeba cysteine proteases could contribute significantly to host protection against E. histolytica.

Entamoeba histolytica cysteine proteinase 5 binds integrin on colonic cells and stimulates NFkappaB-mediated pro-inflammatory responses.

Integrins are important mammalian receptors involved in normal cellular functions and the pathogenesis of inflammation and disease. Entamoeba histolytica is a protozoan parasite that colonizes the gut, and in 10% of infected individuals, causes amebic colitis and liver abscess resulting in 10(5) deaths/year. E. histolytica-induced host inflammatory responses are critical in the pathogenesis of the disease, yet the host and parasite factors involved in disease are poorly defined. Here we show that pro-mature cysteine proteinase 5 (PCP5), a major virulent factor that is abundantly secreted and/or present on the surface of ameba, binds via its RGD motif to α(V)ß(3) integrin on Caco-2 colonic cells and stimulates NFκB-mediated pro-inflammatory responses. PCP5 RGD binding to α(V)ß(3) integrin triggered integrin-linked kinase(ILK)-mediated phosphorylation of Akt-473 that bound and induced the ubiquitination of NF-κB essential modulator (NEMO). As NEMO is required for activation of the IKKα-IKKß complex and NFκB signaling, these events markedly up-regulated pro-inflammatory mediator expressions in vitro in Caco-2 cells and in vivo in colonic loop studies in wild-type and Muc2(-/-) mice lacking an intact protective mucus barrier. These results have revealed that EhPCP5 RGD motif is a ligand for α(V)ß(3) integrin-mediated adhesion on colonic cells and represents a novel mechanism that E. histolytica trophozoites use to trigger an inflammatory response in the pathogenesis of intestinal amebiasis.

The immunopathogenesis of Entamoeba histolytica.

Amebiasis is the disease caused by the enteric dwelling protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica. The WHO considers amebiasis as one of the major health problems in developing countries; it is surpassed by only malaria and schistosomiasis for death caused by parasitic infection. E. histolytica primarily lives in the colon as a harmless commensal, but is capable of causing devastating dysentery, colitis and liver abscess. What triggers the switch to a pathogenic phenotype and the onset of disease is unknown. We are becoming increasingly aware of the complexity of the host-parasite interaction. During chronic stages of amebiasis, the host develops an immune response that is incapable of eliminating tissue resident parasites, while the parasite actively immunosuppresses the host. However, most individuals with symptomatic infections succumb only to an episode of dysentery. Why most halt invasion and a minority progress to chronic disease remains poorly understood. This review presents a current understanding of the immune processes that shape the outcome of E. histolytica infections during its different stages.