Does Japanese Identity Buffer Stress or Intensify Symptoms of Depression Associated with Discrimination in Hawai'i?

Racism is a public health crisis-yet our knowledge remains limited about how different racial and ethnic groups cope with the stress of discrimination across the United States. Research suggests that ethnic identity plays a role in the relationship between perceived discrimination and mental health problems. The purpose of this study is to focus on whether a strong Japanese identity in Hawai'i can buffer the stress of discrimination to protect mental health. Data were from an anonymous survey of 222 students who self-identified as Japanese at a university in Hawai'i. The average age was 21 years, about half (53%) were women, and 10% were foreign-born. Less than half (42%) of the students self-reported ever experiencing discrimination in a lifetime due to race/ethnicity. However, non-specific unfair treatment based on the Everyday Discrimination Scale was self-reported by most students (90%). It primarily included being treated with less respect or courtesy than other people and people acting as if they were better than them. Levels of ethnic identity were assessed with the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (mean, 2.07; range, 0-3). A statistically significant interaction effect was observed (ß = -0.50; P < .01), indicating a stronger ethnic identity counteracted the psychological distress associated with everyday discrimination. This finding suggested that strong Japanese identity, which involves pride and knowledge, participation in cultural practices, and a sense of belonging to one's ethnic group, can buffer the stress of frequent experiences of unfair treatment.

Sad Eyes, Crooked Crosses: Religious Struggles, Psychological Distress and the Mediating Role of Psychosocial Resources.

In this paper, we employed data from the 2011 Miami-Dade Health Survey (n = 444) to formally test whether the association between religious struggles and psychological distress is mediated by psychosocial resources. We found that religious struggles were associated with lower levels of social support, self-esteem, the sense of control, and self-control. We also observed that religious struggles were associated with higher levels of non-specific emotional distress, depression, and anxiety, but not somatization. Our mediation analyses revealed significant indirect effects of religious struggles on emotional distress (not somatization) through social support, self-esteem, and the sense of control, but not self-control.

Depression in Later Life: The Role of Adult Children's College Education for Older Parents' Mental Health in the United States.

OBJECTIVES: Research on the socioeconomic gradient in mental health links disadvantaged family background with subsequent symptoms of depression, demonstrating the "downstream" effect of parental resources on children's mental health. This study takes a different approach by evaluating the "upstream" influence of adult children's educational attainment on parents' depressive symptoms. METHODS: Using longitudinal data from the U.S. Health and Retirement Study (N = 106,517 person-years), we examine whether children's college attainment influences their parents' mental health in later life and whether this association increases with parental age. We also assess whether the link between children's college completion and parents' depression differs by parents' own education. RESULTS: Parents with children who completed college have significantly lower levels of depressive symptoms than parents without college-educated children, although the gap between parents narrows with age. In addition, at baseline, parents with less than a high school education were more positively affected by their children's college completion than parents who themselves had a college education, a finding which lends support to theories of resource substitution. DISCUSSION: Offspring education is an overlooked resource that can contribute to mental health disparities among older adults in a country with unequal access to college educations.

Does ethnic identity buffer or intensify the stress of discrimination among the foreign born and U.S. born? Evidence from the Miami-Dade Health Survey.

This study examines the extent to which ethnic identity is a protective factor and buffers the stress of discrimination among the foreign born compared to the U.S. born in Miami-Dade County. Data were drawn from the 2011 Miami-Dade Health Survey (N = 444), which is a countywide probability sample of adults in South Florida. Two interaction effects were observed: (a) a stronger ethnic identity was associated with less distress among the foreign born than the U.S. born; and (b) a stronger ethnic identity exacerbated the relationship between everyday discrimination and distress among the U.S. born. Ethnic identity, which involves ethnic pride, participation in cultural practices, and cultural commitment or sense of belonging, was associated with better psychological well-being among the foreign born than the U.S. born. Ethnic identity, however, was not a protective factor for the U.S. born, but rather it intensified the distressing effect of discrimination.

Does the Health of Adult Child Caregivers Vary by Employment Status in the United States?

Objective: This study investigates whether the health effects of informal caregiving for aging parents vary by employment status in the United States. Two opposing hypotheses are tested: dual role strain and role enhancement. Method: Using national longitudinal data from the U.S. Health and Retirement Study, multivariate regression models predicted self-rated health and mental health among older adult children caregiving for their parents (2009-2012) and noncaregivers. Results: A statistically significant interaction was found between caregiving duration and employment, indicating that employed caregivers had significantly worse health than retired caregivers. Caregiving duration also predicted significantly higher levels of depressive symptoms. Discussion: Our results support the dual role strain hypothesis and suggest that caregiving for a parent up to 4 years is enough to predict significantly worse health among older adult Baby Boomers, especially those in the labor force. The broader implications for public health and workplace policies are discussed.

Are There Gender Differences in the Psychological Effects of Ethnic Identity and Discrimination in Hawai'i?

The purpose of this study is to investigate whether there are gender differences in the psychological effects of ethnic identity and discrimination in Hawai'i. Using data from an anonymous survey of undergraduate students (N = 1,033) at a university in Hawai'i, regression results revealed that higher levels of ethnic identification were associated with significantly lower levels of depressive symptoms. This association was statistically significant (P < .001), adjusting for gender, age, socioeconomic status, racial/ethnic group, mixed racial/ethnic status, years living in Hawai'i, immigrant status, and discrimination. Interaction effects (b = 2.55; P < .05) further indicated that the inverse relationship between ethnic identity and symptoms of depression was stronger for men than women. Also, everyday discrimination was significantly more psychologically distressing for women (b = 0.19; P < .05) than men. Overall, these findings suggest that a strong ethnic identity, which encompasses ethnic pride and knowledge, involvement in ethnic practices, and a cultural commitment or feeling of belonging to one's ethnic group, significantly benefits mental health, and to a greater extent among men. Although the chronic stress of discrimination (not necessarily due to race/ethnicity) was linked with increased levels of distress among both men and women, it was significantly more intense among women. Future research is needed to uncover why the mental health consequences of everyday discrimination and a salient ethnic identity would be different for young men and women in this cultural context and whether this holds true in other locations in the United States.

It is not Black and White: Discrimination and distress in Hawai'i.

OBJECTIVE: This study investigates whether the strength of the relationship between perceived discrimination and psychological distress varies by race/ethnicity, gender, and the number of years of residence in Hawai'i. METHOD: Our sample consisted of 1,036 undergraduate students at a university in Hawai'i and the survey was conducted in 2012-2013. The sample was composed of 55% women and the average age was 21. The students reported their racial/ethnic backgrounds as White (19%), Japanese (21%), Filipino (16%), Chinese (10%), Native Hawaiian (14%), Pacific Islander (4%), other Asian (6%), and other race/ethnicity (10%). RESULTS: Interaction effect results revealed that Whites who had experienced everyday discrimination had higher levels of psychological distress than racial ethnic minorities. Women who had experienced everyday discrimination were more distressed than men and more distressed by a lower threshold level of discrimination. Furthermore, those who had lived in Hawai'i for a longer duration and experienced everyday discrimination were more distressed. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings draw attention to how the psychological effects of discrimination vary by racial/ethnic group, gender, and location in the United States. The relationship between everyday discrimination and higher levels of psychological distress especially among those who have lived in Hawai'i longer, women, and Whites indicates that targeted medical and social interventions are needed to protect the mental health of college students. (PsycINFO Database Record

The Paradox of Discrimination, the "Aloha Spirit," and Symptoms of Depression in Hawai'i.

It remains to be determined whether the "aloha spirit" is a cultural resource that influences psychological well-being in Hawai'i. Thus, the purpose of this study is to investigate whether the aloha spirit is associated with levels of psychological distress and the risk of depression, while taking into account various risk factors. Data for this study were drawn from an anonymous survey of undergraduate students (N = 1,028) at the University of Hawai'i. Regression results revealed that having learned the aloha spirit was associated with significantly lower levels (b = -1.76; P < .01) of psychological distress and a reduced odds of depression (OR = .69; P < .01) over and above the effects of perceived discrimination, local identity, levels of ethnic identification, race/ethnicity, immigrant status, duration of residence in Hawai'i, and other sociodemographic factors. In contrast, everyday discrimination was associated with significantly higher levels (b = 0.41; P < .001) of psychological distress and a greater odds of depression (OR = 1.08; P < .001). Together, these findings highlight the paradox of discrimination and the aloha spirit in Hawai'i by documenting their distinct relationships with mental health. Overall, this study contributes to medical and public health research on mental health disparities during the transition to adulthood by delving into the social context of daily life in the understudied, multicultural location of Hawai'i.

Religious Involvement and Perceptions of Control: Evidence from the Miami-Dade Health Survey.

This study uses data collected through the 2011 Miami-Dade Health Survey (n = 444) to test whether religious involvement is associated with three distinct control beliefs. Regression results suggest that people who exhibit high levels of religious involvement tend to report higher levels of the sense of control, self-control, and the health locus of control than respondents who exhibit low levels of religious involvement. Although this study suggests that religious involvement can promote perceptions of control over one's own life, this pattern is apparently concentrated at the high end of the distribution for religious involvement, indicating a threshold effect.

Disadvantaged family background and depression among young adults in the United States: the roles of chronic stress and self-esteem.

Although several longitudinal studies have demonstrated that having a disadvantaged family background is a risk factor for subsequent symptoms of depression, few studies have examined the mediating mechanisms that explain this long-term relationship. Thus, this study uses US national longitudinal data and integrates social stress theory with the life course perspective by focusing on two mediating mechanisms-the chronic stress of poverty and self-esteem during the transition to adulthood. Results reveal that self-esteem largely mediates the inverse relationship between parental education and levels of depressive symptoms in young adulthood. However, the inverse relationship between parental occupational prestige and depressive symptoms among young adults is not mediated by self-esteem, but rather long durations of poverty across 16 years. Overall, these findings suggest that different components of family socioeconomic status can leave a lasting imprint on mental health via the self-concept and the chronic stress of poverty throughout the journey to adulthood.

Limited English proficiency and psychological distress among Latinos and Asian Americans.

English proficiency is increasingly recognized as an important factor that is related to the mental health of immigrants and ethnic minorities. However, few studies have examined how the association between English proficiency and mental health operates and whether the pattern of association is similar or different among various ethnic minority groups. This paper investigates how limited English proficiency directly and indirectly affects psychological distress through pathways of discrimination for both Latinos and Asian Americans in the United States. Findings suggest that, for Asian Americans, limited English proficiency has an independent relationship with psychological distress over and above demographic variables, socioeconomic and immigration-related factors and discrimination. For Latinos, however, socio-demographic variables and discrimination show a stronger association than limited English proficiency in affecting psychological distress. Different forms of discrimination - everyday discrimination and racial/ethnic discrimination - are equally important for both ethnic groups. Findings underscore the differential role of limited English proficiency for the mental health of Asian Americans and Latinos and suggest the distinctive racial experiences and backgrounds of these two ethnic groups.

Unfulfilled expectations and symptoms of depression among young adults.

This study uses the life course perspective and data from 16 waves of the US National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (1979-1994) to examine whether unfulfilled expectations about educational attainment, employment, marriage, and parenthood are risk factors for subsequent symptoms of depression among young adults in the United States. Results from ordinary least squares regression analyses indicate that achieving a lower level of education than expected, becoming a parent unexpectedly, and being out of the labor force unexpectedly at ages 19-27 predict higher levels of depressive symptoms at ages 29-37, adjusting for demographics, family background, and earlier mental health. These effects do not significantly vary by gender, age, race/ethnicity, or family background, and are not explained by being selected out of the labor force for long durations because of mental or physical illness, attending school, keeping house, or other reasons. Overall, this study contributes to the literature on stress and mental health by acknowledging people's expectations about the markers of adulthood, and advances our understanding of why the timing of transitions in people's lives can have long-term mental health consequences.

The influence of past unemployment duration on symptoms of depression among young women and men in the United States.

OBJECTIVES: I examined whether unemployment while looking for a job and being out of the labor force while not seeking work have distinct effects on symptoms of depression among young women and men in the United States. I also investigated whether past unemployment duration predicts depressive symptoms. METHODS: I used ordinary least squares regression to analyze data from the 1979-1994 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth. RESULTS: Cross-sectional results suggested that current unemployment status and out-of-the-labor-force status were significantly associated with depressive symptoms at ages 29 through 37 years. The association between being out of the labor force and depressive symptoms was stronger for men. Longitudinal results revealed that past unemployment duration across 15 years of the transition to adulthood significantly predicted depressive symptoms, net of demographics, family background, current socioeconomic status, and prior depressive symptoms. However, duration out of the labor force did not predict depressive symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Longer durations of unemployment predict higher levels of depressive symptoms among young adults. Future research should measure duration longitudinally and distinguish unemployment from being out of the labor force to advance our understanding of socioeconomic mental health disparities.

Is the duration of poverty and unemployment a risk factor for heavy drinking?

Research on the influence of socioeconomic status (SES) on heavy drinking of alcohol has provided contradictory findings. A limitation of the literature is that studies have primarily measured SES at one point in time. Inspired by the life course perspective and sociological research on chronic stress, this study uses data from the US National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (1979-1992 wave) to examine whether the duration of poverty and unemployment is a risk factor for heavy drinking. Results from logistic and ordinary least squares regression analyses demonstrate that longer durations of poverty and involuntary unemployment across a span of 13 years significantly predict being a heavy drinker and more frequent heavy drinking at ages 27-35 years. These effects are independent of gender, age, race/ethnicity, marital status, prior heavy drinking, and present SES. Overall, this study contributes to the literature that histories of poverty and involuntary unemployment have lasting effects on heavy drinking. More studies should use longitudinal data to explore the temporal dimension of SES.

Relationship violence and psychological distress among low-income urban women.

In this paper, we examined the association between relationship violence and psychological distress among low-income urban women. Extending prior research, we considered the effects of relationship violence within the context of other chronic stressors that are common in the lives of these women. Using data from the Welfare, Children, and Families project (1999), a probability sample of 2,402 low-income women with children living in low-income neighborhoods in Boston, Chicago, and San Antonio, we predicted psychological distress with multiple measures of relationship violence, a wide range of sociodemographic variables, and several chronic stressors. Our results show that relationship violence is associated with higher levels of economic hardship, neighborhood disorder, and household disrepair. We also find that relationship violence is associated with higher levels of psychological distress, net of these other chronic stressors. Finally, we observe that the effects of relationship violence do not vary according to the chronic stressors under study. Because the adverse effects of relationship violence are similar for women despite other adverse circumstances, interventions and treatment efforts focused exclusively on relationship violence may make a unique contribution to the psychological well-being of low-income urban women.

Coping with perceived discrimination: does ethnic identity protect mental health?

Using data (N = 2,109) from a large-scale epidemiological study of Filipino Americans, this study examines whether ethnic identity is linked to mental health and reduces the stress of discrimination. The strength of identification with an ethnic group is found to be directly associated with fewer depressive symptoms. In other words, having a sense of ethnic pride, involvement in ethinic practices, and cultural commitment to one's racial/ethnic group may protect mental health. Self-reports of racial/ethnic discrimination over a lifetime and everyday discrimination in the past month not due to race/ethnicity are associated with increased levels of depressive symptoms. Yet ethnic identity buffers the stress of racial/ethnic discrimination. This suggests that ethnic identity is a coping resource for racial/ethnic minorities that should not be overlooked. The strong link between ethnic identity and better mental health has implications for social-psychological theories on race/ethnicity and assimilation in the United States.

Does perceived discrimination affect health? Longitudinal relationships between work discrimination and women's physical and emotional health.

This study uses longitudinal data to examine the causal relationships between perceived work discrimination and women's physical and emotional health. Using data on 1,778 employed women in the National Longitudinal Survey of Mature Women, we investigate the structural and individual characteristics that predict later perceptions of discrimination and the effects of those perceptions on subsequent health. We find that perceptions of discrimination are influenced by job attitudes, prior experiences of discrimination, and work contexts, but prior health is not related to later perceptions. However, perceptions of discrimination do impact subsequent health, and these effects remain significant after controlling for prior emotional health, physical health limitations, discrimination, and job characteristics. Overall, the results provide even stronger support for the health impact of workplace discrimination and suggest a need for further longitudinal analyses of causes and consequences of perceived discrimination.