Influence of lactic acid on endogenous and viral RNA-induced immune mediator production by vaginal epithelial cells.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the influence of lactic acid on immune mediator release from vaginal epithelial cells. METHODS: The human vaginal epithelial cell line, VK2/E6E7, was cultured in the presence or absence of physiological concentrations of lactic acid, and in the presence or absence of the viral Toll-like receptor 3 agonist, poly (inosinic acid:cytidylic acid). Supernatants were assayed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-6, IL-8, IL-23, transforming growth factor (TGF)-ß and secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor. RESULTS: Vaginal epithelial cells spontaneously released IL-1ß (25.9 pg/mL), IL-8 (1.0 ng/mL), TGF-ß (175 pg/mL), and secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (33.8 ng/mL). Only TGF-ß production was marginally enhanced (49%) by addition of lactic acid alone. Poly (inosinic acid:cytidylic acid) by itself stimulated the release of IL-6 (305 pg/mL) and enhanced IL-8 production (2.8 ng/mL). The combination of poly (inosinic acid:cytidylic acid) and lactic acid markedly increased IL-8 production (5.0 ng/mL) and induced the release of IL-1ß (96.2 pg/mL). The poly (inosinic acid:cytidylic acid)-mediated lactic acid effect on IL-1ß and IL-8 release was abrogated when the lactic acid was neutralized or if acetic acid was substituted for lactic acid. CONCLUSION: Lactic acid enhances the release of selective mediators from vaginal epithelial cells and stimulates antiviral immune responses.

Palatability and chemical defense of Phragmites australis to the marsh periwinkle snail Littoraria irrorata.

Coastal marsh habitats are impacted by many disturbances, including habitat destruction, pollution, and the introduction of invasive species. The common reed, Phragmites australis, has been particularly invasive in the mesohaline regions of the Chesapeake Bay, but few studies have investigated its role in trophic interactions with North American marsh consumers. The marsh periwinkle snail Littoraria irrorata is a common grazer in marshes and grazes on the native grass Spartina alterniflora. Whether this snail grazes on Phragmites has not been addressed. We found Spartina leaves to be tougher than those of Phragmites, but despite this, snails consumed significantly more Spartina than Phragmites. Subsequent experiments demonstrated that Phragmites is chemically deterrent to snails by an unknown, moderately polar, compound. Further studies are required to more fully understand the interactions between Phragmites, herbivores, and Spartina, and how they may impact marsh ecosystems.