Ultrastructural localization of parkin in the rat brainstem, thalamus and basal ganglia.

The parkin gene encodes a 52 kd putative E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase involved in an autosomal recessive form of early onset parkinsonism. Parkin ultrastructural localization was studied by immunohistochemistry in the adult rat brain and in a parkin inducible PC12 cell line (HS22). In the rat brain, parkin immunoreactivity was detected in neuronal and glial cell bodies and in nerve processes. In the neurons, it was mostly localized on the periphery of large vesicles, some rare mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum in the cell bodies, and on the periphery of large vesicles in the dendrites and terminals of the neurons. In addition, parkin immunoreactivity was also found around synaptic vesicles in the presynaptic elements of some axons. In HS22 cells over-expressing parkin, the distribution of the protein was similar to that observed in the perikarya of the labeled neurons.

FADD: A link between TNF family receptors and caspases in Parkinson's disease.

Fas-associating protein with a death domain (FADD) is a proximal adaptor protein of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor family death pathway. This human postmortem study showed a significant decrease in the percentage of FADD-immunoreactive dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta of patients with PD compared with controls (-24.8%). This decrease correlated with the known selective vulnerability of nigral DA neurons in PD, suggesting that this pathway contributes to the susceptibility of DA neurons in PD to TNF-mediated apoptosis.

Caspase-8 is an effector in apoptotic death of dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson's disease, but pathway inhibition results in neuronal necrosis.

Caspase-8 is a proximal effector protein of the tumor necrosis factor receptor family death pathway. In the present human postmortem study, we observed a significantly higher percentage of dopaminergic (DA) substantia nigra pars compacta neurons that displayed caspase-8 activation in Parkinson's disease (PD) patients compared with controls. In an in vivo experimental PD model, namely subchronically 1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-treated mice, we also show that caspase-8 is indeed activated after exposure to this toxin early in the course of cell demise, suggesting that caspase-8 activation precedes and is not the consequence of cell death. However, cotreatment of 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium-intoxicated primary DA cultures with broad-spectrum and specific caspase-8 inhibitors did not result in neuroprotection but seemed to trigger a switch from apoptosis to necrosis. We propose that this effect is related to ATP depletion and suggest that the use of caspase inhibitors in pathologies linked to intracellular energy depletion, such as PD, should be cautiously evaluated.

Is Bax a mitochondrial mediator in apoptotic death of dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson's disease?

Bax is a proapoptotic member of the Bcl-2 family of proteins. It is believed to exert its action primarily by facilitating the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondrial intermembrane space into the cytosol, leading to caspase activation and cell death. Because alterations in mitochondrial respiratory function, caspase activation and cell death with morphologic features compatible with apoptosis have been observed post mortem in the brain of patients with Parkinson's disease, we tried to clarify the potential role of Bax in this process in an immunohistochemical study on normal and Parkinson's disease post-mortem brain and primary mesencephalic cell cultures treated with MPP(+). We found that Bax is expressed ubiquitously by dopaminergic (DA) neurons in post-mortem brain of normal and Parkinson's disease subjects as well as in vitro. Using an antibody to Bax inserted into the outer mitochondrial membrane as an index of Bax activation, no significant differences were observed between control and Parkinson's disease subjects, regardless of the mesencephalic subregion analysed. However, in Parkinson's disease subjects, the percentage of Bax-positive melanized SNpc neurons containing Lewy bodies, suggestive of DA neuronal suffering, was significantly higher than the overall percentage of Bax-positive neurons among melanized neurons. Furthermore, all melanized SNpc neurons in Parkinson's disease subjects with activated caspase-3 were also immunoreactive for Bax, suggesting that Bax anchored in the outer mitochondrial membrane of melanized SNpc neurons showing signs of neuronal suffering or apoptosis is increased compared with DA neurons that are apparently unaltered. Surprisingly, MPP(+) treatment of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-positive neurons in primary mesencephalic cultures did not cause redistribution of Bax, although cytochrome c was released from the mitochondria and nuclear condensation/fragmentation was induced. Taken together, these findings suggest that in the human pathology, Bax may be a cofactor in caspase activation, but our in vitro data fail to indicate a central role for Bax in apoptotic death of DA neurons in an experimental Parkinson's disease paradigm.

Parkin immunoreactivity in the brain of human and non-human primates: an immunohistochemical analysis in normal conditions and in Parkinsonian syndromes.

The etiology of Parkinson's disease is unknown, but the gene involved in an autosomic recessive form of the disease with early onset has recently been identified. It codes for a protein with an unknown function called parkin. In the present study we produced a specific polyclonal antiserum against human parkin. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that parkin is expressed in neuronal perikarya and processes but also in glial and blood vessels in the primate brain (human and monkey). Electron microscopy indicated that parkin immunoreactivity is mostly located in large cytoplasmic vesicles and at the level of the endoplasmic reticulum. Parkin was expressed heterogeneously in various structures of the brain. It was detectable in the dopaminergic systems at the level of the perikarya in the mesencephalon but also in the striatum. However, parkin was also expressed by numerous nondopaminergic neurons. The staining intensity of parkin was particularly high in the hippocampal formation, the pallidal complex, the red nucleus, and the cerebellum. Comparison of control subjects with patients with Parkinson's disease and control animals with 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-intoxicated animals revealed a loss of parkin-immunoreactive neurons only in the substantia nigra pars compacta. Furthermore, the surviving dopaminergic neurons in the parkinsonian state continued to express parkin at a level similar to that observed in the control situation. These data indicate that parkin is a widely expressed protein. Thus, the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in familial cases of Parkinson's disease with autosomal recessive transmission cannot be explained solely in terms of an alteration of this protein.

Calpastatin immunoreactivity in the monkey and human brain of control subjects and patients with Parkinson's disease.

Parkinson's disease is characterized by a selective loss of dopaminergic neurons in the nigrostriatal pathway. However, not all dopaminergic neurons degenerate in this disease, and calcium has been suspected of playing a role in this differential vulnerability. An overexpression of the calcium-dependent protease calpain II has recently been reported in the parkinsonian substantia nigra, suggesting that a rise in intracellular calcium concentrations may be involved in the mechanism leading to cell death. The proteasic activity of calpain is regulated by an endogenous inhibitory protein called calpastatin. Because little is known about the distribution of calpastatin in the primate brain, we first analyzed immunohistochemically the calpastatin expression in normal human and monkey brain. A ubiquitous distribution of calpastatin immunostaining was observed in both cases, but its expression was variable from one region to another. In the basal ganglia, staining was intense in the striatum, in the pallidal complex, and in some nuclei of the thalamus. The cerebellum was stained intensely, particularly in the granular and Purkinje cell layers. A dense, heterogeneous staining was observed in the hippocampal formation, mostly in the pyramidal and granular layers. The distribution of staining was similar in the different cerebral cortices studied, and it was most intense in layer V. In the brainstem, staining was particularly prominent in the substantia nigra pars reticulata and compacta, the central gray substance, the superior colliculus, and the cuneiform nucleus, and staining was moderate in the tegmenti pedonculopontinus nucleus and the griseum pontis. In the second part of the study, the authors compared calpastatin expression in the mesencephalon between patients with Parkinson's disease and control subjects. Sequential double staining revealed that some dopaminergic neurons coexpress calpastatin, the proportion of double-stained neurons ranging between 52% and 76% among the different dopaminergic cell groups. Quantitative analysis of the number of calpastatin-stained neurons evidenced a loss of both calpastatin-positive and calpastatin-negative neurons in the substantia nigra of patients with Parkinson's disease. These data suggest that calpain II overexpression in Parkinson's disease is not compensated for by a concomitant increase in calpastatin expression.

Caspase-3: A vulnerability factor and final effector in apoptotic death of dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson's disease.

Caspase-3 is an effector of apoptosis in experimental models of Parkinson's disease (PD). However, its potential role in the human pathology remains to be demonstrated. Using caspase-3 immunohistochemistry on the postmortem human brain, we observed a positive correlation between the degree of neuronal loss in dopaminergic (DA) cell groups affected in the mesencephalon of PD patients and the percentage of caspase-3-positive neurons in these cell groups in control subjects and a significant decrease of caspase-3-positive pigmented neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta of PD patients compared with controls that also could be observed in an animal model of PD. This suggests that neurons expressing caspase-3 are more sensitive to the pathological process than those that do not express the protein. In addition, using an antibody raised against activated caspase-3, the percentage of active caspase-3-positive neurons among DA neurons was significantly higher in PD patients than in controls. Finally, electron microscopy analysis in the human brain and in vitro data suggest that caspase-3 activation precedes and is not a consequence of apoptotic cell death in PD.

Apoptosis and autophagy in nigral neurons of patients with Parkinson's disease.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive cell loss confined mostly to dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra. Several factors, including oxidative stress, and decreased activity of complex I mitochondrial respiratory chain, are involved in the degenerative process. Yet, the underlying mechanisms leading to dopaminergic cell loss remain elusive. Morphological assessment for different modes of cell death: apoptosis, necrosis or autophagic degeneration, can contribute significantly to the understanding of this neuronal loss. Ultrastructural examination revealed characteristics of apoptosis and autophagic degeneration in melanized neurons of the substantia nigra in PD patients. The results suggest that even at the final stage of the disease, the dopaminergic neurons are undergoing active process of cell death.

Neuronal vulnerability in Parkinson's disease.

Although Parkinson's disease is characterized by a loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra not all dopaminergic neurons degenerate in this disease. This suggests that some specific factors make subpopulations of dopaminergic neurons more susceptible to the disease. Here, we show that the most vulnerable neurons are particularly sensitive to oxidative stress and rise in intracellular calcium concentrations. Because both events seem to occur in Parkinson's disease this may explain why some dopaminergic neurons degenerate and other do not.

Increased M-calpain expression in the mesencephalon of patients with Parkinson's disease but not in other neurodegenerative disorders involving the mesencephalon: a role in nerve cell death?

Parkinson's disease is characterized by the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra and, to a lesser extent, the ventral tegmental area and catecholaminergic cell group A8. However, among these dopaminergic neurons, those expressing the calcium buffering protein calbindin are selectively preserved, suggesting that a rise in intracellular calcium concentrations may be involved in the cascade of events leading to nerve cell death in Parkinson's disease. We therefore analysed immunohistochemically the expression of the calcium-dependent protease calpain II (m-calpain) in the mesencephalon of patients with Parkinson's disease, progressive supranuclear palsy or striatonigral degeneration, where nigral dopaminergic neurons degenerate, and matched controls without nigral involvement. Calpain immunoreactivity was found in fibers and neuronal perikarya in the substantia nigra, the ventral tegmental area, catecholaminergic cell group A8 and the locus coeruleus. In patients with Parkinson's disease but not with the other neurodegenerative disorders, m-calpain immunoreactivity was detected in fibers with an abnormal morphology and in Lewy bodies. Sequential double staining revealed that most of these m-calpain-positive fibers and neuronal perikarya co-expressed tyrosine hydroxylase, indicating that most m-calpain neurons are catecholaminergic. Quantitative analysis of m-calpain staining in the substantia nigra and locus coeruleus revealed an increased density of fibers and neuronal perikarya in parkinsonian patients in both structures. These data suggest that increased calcium concentrations may be associated with nerve cell death in Parkinson's disease.

Synaptic plasticity in the caudate nucleus of patients with Parkinson's disease.

The loss of dopaminergic neurons from the substantia nigra in Parkinson's disease (PD) may provoke a reorganization of cellular interactions in the nigrostriatal pathway. Indeed, a plasticity of putative corticostriatal synapses has been evidenced in the striatum of rats with a 6-hydroxy-dopamine-induced lesion of the substantia nigra. However, to our knowledge, synaptic plasticity in the striatum has not previously been investigated in human PD. In this study, we have analysed, at electron microscope level, the morphological characteristics of the synapses formed by afferents in asymmetric contact with dendritic spines of neurons in the caudate nucleus of three patients with PD and three matched controls. The length of the postsynaptic densities and the number of perforated synapses were both significantly increased (24 and 88%, respectively) in the PD patients; the size of these afferents and the surface area occupied by their mitochondria also showed an increase (24 and 50%, respectively), although not statistically significant. The size and density of dendritic spines and the size of postsynaptic density perforations were unchanged. These data indicate the presence of plasticity of the putative corticostriatal synapses in PD and suggest a hyperactivity of cortical afferents to GABAergic neurons.

Nitric oxide synthase and neuronal vulnerability in Parkinson's disease.

Parkinson's disease is characterized by a loss of dopaminergic neurons in the mesencephalon. Although the mechanism of this neuronal loss is still unknown, oxidative stress is very likely involved in the cascade of events leading to nerve cell death. Since nitric oxide could be involved in the production of free radicals, we analysed, using immunohistochemistry and histochemistry, the production systems of nitric oxide in the mesencephalon of four patients with idiopathic Parkinson's disease and three matched control subjects. Using specific antibodies directed against the inducible isoform of nitric oxide synthase (the enzyme involved in the synthesis of nitric oxide), we found evidence to suggest that this isoform was present solely in glial cells displaying the morphological characteristics of activated macrophages. Immunohistochemical analysis performed with antibodies against the neuronal isoform of nitric oxide synthase, however, revealed perikarya and processes of neurons but no glial cell staining. The number of nitric oxide synthase-containing cells was investigated by histoenzymology, using the NADPH-diaphorase activity of nitric oxide synthase. Histochemistry revealed (i) a significant increase in NADPH-diaphorase-positive glial cell density in the dopaminergic cell groups characterized by neuronal loss in Parkinson's disease and (ii) a neuronal loss in Parkinson's disease that was two-fold greater for pigmented NADPH-diaphorase-negative neurons than for pigmented NADPH-diaphorase-positive neurons. These data suggest a potentially deleterious role of glial cells producing excessive levels of nitric oxide in Parkinson's disease, which may be neurotoxic for a subpopulation of dopaminergic neurons, especially those not expressing NADPH-diaphorase activity. However, it cannot be excluded that the presence of glial cells expressing nitric oxide synthase in the substantia nigra of patients with Parkinson's disease represents a consequence of dopaminergic neuronal loss.

Expression of lactoferrin receptors is increased in the mesencephalon of patients with Parkinson disease.

The degeneration of nigral dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson disease is believed to be associated with oxidative stress. Since iron levels are increased in the substantia nigra of parkinsonian patients and this metal catalyzes the formation of free radicals, it may be involved in the mechanisms of nerve cell death. The cause of nigral iron increase is not understood. Iron acquisition by neurons may occur from iron-transferrin complexes with a direct interaction with specific membrane receptors, but recent results have shown a low density of transferrin receptors in the substantia nigra. To investigate whether neuronal death in Parkinson disease may be associated with changes in a pathway supplementary to that of transferrin, lactoferrin (lactotransferrin) receptor expression was studied in the mesencephalon. In this report we present evidence from immunohistochemical staining of postmortem human brain tissue that lactoferrin receptors are localized on neurons (perikarya, dendrites, axons), cerebral microvasculature, and, in some cases, glial cells. In parkinsonian patients, lactoferrin receptor immunoreactivity on neurons and microvessels was increased and more pronounced in those regions of the mesencephalon where the loss of dopaminergic neurons is severe. Moreover, in the substantia nigra, the intensity of immunoreactivity on neurons and microvessels was higher for patients with higher nigral dopaminergic loss. These data suggest that lactoferrin receptors on vulnerable neurons may increase intraneuronal iron levels and contribute to the degeneration of nigral dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson disease.

Does the calcium binding protein calretinin protect dopaminergic neurons against degeneration in Parkinson's disease?

Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by a heterogeneous loss of dopaminergic neurons in the human mesencephalon affecting mainly the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) and to a lesser extent the other dopaminergic cell groups. A rise in intracellular calcium concentrations represents one of the final events leading to nerve cell death. Calbindin D28k, a protein capable of buffering intracellular calcium concentrations is present in the dopaminergic neurons that are selectively preserved in PD but not in those that degenerate. To determine whether other calcium-binding proteins also represent putative protective factors of dopaminergic neurons in PD, we analyzed immunohistochemically the distribution of calretinin-containing (CR+) neurons, in the human mesencephalon of three control subjects and four patients with PD. No significant differences were observed between the number of CR+ neurons in the two subject groups. Sequential double immunostaining for calretinin and tyrosine hydroxylase showed a variable proportion of CR+ neurons among dopaminergic neurons: moderate co-localization was found in catecholaminergic cell group A8 and in the dorsal part of the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and low co-localization in the SNpc, the ventral part of the VTA and the central gray substance. This indicates that calretinin may only protect some dopaminergic neurons against degeneration in PD. Yet, in the SNpc a selective preservation of CR+ dopaminergic neurons was observed, suggesting a neuroprotective role in some dopaminergic cell groups only.

High affinity neurotrophin receptors in cholinergic neurons in the human brain.

Tyrosine protein kinases TrkA and TrkC are signal-transducing receptors for nerve growth factor (NGF) and neurotrophin-3 (NT-3), respectively. In the human brain postmortem, using sequential immunohistochemistry, we detected the presence of TrkA and TrkC on 99% and 95% of cholinergic neurons from the basal forebrain and on some cholinergic neurons (22% and 16%, respectively) from the striatum, but not on those from the mesencephalon. These results suggest that some cholinergic neurons, particularly those of the nucleus basalis of Meynert, may be sensitive to both NGF and NT-3 in the human brain. The sensitivity of cholinergic neurons to these two neurotrophins may have a special interest in therapeutic strategies for Alzheimer's disease.

Distribution of 125I-ferrotransferrin binding sites in the mesencephalon of control subjects and patients with Parkinson's disease.

Iron is abnormally accumulated in the substantia nigra pars compacta of patients with Parkinson's disease (PD). Because neuronal and glial iron uptake seems to be mediated by the binding of ferrotransferrin to a specific high-affinity receptor on the cell surface, the number of transferrin receptors could be altered in this disease. The regional distribution of specific binding sites for human 125I-diferric transferrin has been studied in the mesencephalon, on cryostat-cut sections from autopsy brains of control subjects and parkinsonian patients by in vitro autoradiography. Densities of binding sites were highest in the central gray substance (approximately 10 fmol/mg of tissue equivalent), intermediate in the catecholaminergic cell group A8, superior colliculus, and ventral tegmental area, and almost nonexistent in the substantia nigra. The density of 125I-transferrin binding sites was not significantly different between parkinsonian and control brains in any region analyzed. These results show that in the mesencephalon the regional density of transferrin binding sites is lowest in the dopaminergic cell groups, which are the most vulnerable to PD, and suggest that iron does not accumulate through an increased density of transferrin receptors at the level of the substantia nigra.