[I have tested for you. Automated kinetic perimetry]. / J'ai testé pour vous. La périmétrie cinétique automatisée.

We compared the kinetic perimetry of the Humphrey Field Anayzer and the Haag Streit Octopus 101 and assessed their use in relation to Goldmann perimetry. The Humphrey kinetic perimetry comes close to Goldmann perimetry and the Octopus shows clear advantages, notably in terms of ergonomics and its more sophisticated software. The Goldmann requires a high level of skill; examination time with the Humphrey and the Octopus is at least double the time required by a skilled Goldmann operator. The examiner can to a certain degree be passive during the static visual field examination, but is entirely active during the kinematic visual field examination. Therefore, contrary to static perimetry, the examination can only be performed by a physician. The future of automated kinematic perimetry depends on simplification of the software.

[Prostatic neoplasms: clinical and biological aspects, histopathologic patterns]. / Cancer de la prostate: les aspects cliniques, biologiques et histopathologiques utiles au radiologue.

Medical imaging has an important role in the diagnosis and treatment options of prostate cancer (TRUS guided biopsies, MRI). The knowledge of the different types of cancers, their preferred topography, imaging features, extension pattern, and also the important items that may help the surgical procedure (or any other treatment) are as many crucial key points for optimal management of patients.

[Transrectal ultrasound and biopsy of the prostate]. / Echographie et biopsies de prostate.

This review describes the transrectal ultrasound (TRUS) features of prostate cancer (PC), discusses the role of TRUS in the detection of PC and defines the modalities of biopsies in patients with suspected PC, particularly concerning prevention of complications, the number of biopsies and the biopsy schemes ensuring an optimal cancer detection rate. TRUS alone has limited potential to identify PC because of frequent multifocality of cancer within the prostate, the variable sonographic appearance of prostatic tumors, the poor specificity of focal US abnormalities, and the substantial percentage of isoechoic PC. Over the past decade, the sextant biopsy technique has emerged as the standard of care in the detection of PC. However, limitations in cancer detection have been appreciated, particularly a false-negative rate approaching 20%. This high failure rate has led investigators to refine biopsy techniques to improve cancer detection and to increase the total number of cores. Currently, recommendations include increasing the biopsy number to a minimum of 10-12 cores, including sampling of the lateral prostate. Refinements in imaging technologies (power Doppler sonography, microbubble intravenous sonographic contrast agents, and MR spectroscopy or dynamic contrast MR imaging) should eventually improve targeting of prostate needle biopsy and reduce false-negative biopsies.

NKT lymphocyte ontogeny and function are impaired in low antibody-producer Biozzi mice: gene mapping in the interval-specific congenic strains raised for immunomodulatory genes.

NKT cells are CD4(+) or CD4(-)CD8(-) CD1d-restricted lymphocytes, characterized by the property to rapidly produce IL-4 and IFN-gamma in response to TCR ligation. This IL-4 burst is lacking in autoimmunity-prone SJL and NOD strains of mice, which suggests an immunoregulatory role for NKT cells. The NKT cell status was thus investigated in the genetically selected high (H) and low (L) antibody-producer mice. The results show that (i) the frequency of cells expressing the NKT cell markers is 3- to 4-fold lower in thymus and spleen from L than H mice, (ii) L mice spleen cells did not produce IL-4 following injection of anti-TCR alpha beta antibody, and (iii) L mice thymus and spleen cells failed to produce IL-4 after in vitro stimulation by anti-TCR alpha beta antibody or alpha-galactosylceramide, a newly described NKT cell ligand. These parameters were investigated in six interval-specific congenic strains raised for the quantitative trait loci which contain the immunomodulatory genes responsible for the high/low antibody production phenotypes. IL-4 production recovery occurred only in the congenic strain in which the H origin chromosome 4 segment was introgressed on the L background. This finding was not due to increased NKT cell frequency but appeared dependent of antigen-presenting cells in co-culture experiments. This result strongly suggests the presence of gene(s) modulating NKT function on chromosome 4, close to several genes predisposing to autoimmunity.

Genetics of chemical carcinogenesis: analysis of bidirectional selective breeding inducing maximal resistance or maximal susceptibility to 2-stage skin tumorigenesis in the mouse.

We report on bidirectional selective breeding, initiated from a genetically defined foundation population and carried out to selection limit, for producing lines of mice endowed with maximal resistance (Car-R) or maximal susceptibility (Car-S) to 2-stage skin tumorigenesis. The initial population resulted from a balanced intercrossing of 8 inbred strains of mice. The tumors, induced by a single application of DMBA (initiation) and twice weekly applications of TPA (promotion), were benign papillomas; their number at the end of the promotion period was the phenotype chosen for assortative mating. Afterward, the majority of them regressed while others progressed to malignant carcinomas. The Car-R line was selected through a strong challenge, while the Car-S line selection was based on responses to decreasing concentrations of DMBA and TPA. The selection limit was reached after 14 or 15 generations showing progressive interline divergence, which strongly suggests the interaction of several quantitative trait loci (QTL). The phenotypic difference was extremely large: the tumor response was 73 times higher in Car-S than in Car-R mice, though the applied concentrations of DMBA and TPA were 100 and 40 times lower, respectively. The mean heritability realized during the selective breeding was 0.20 in Car-R and 0.49 in Car-S. Our results are compatible with a minimal QTL estimate of 8 in the Car-R line and of 9 or 10 in the Car-S line. The Car-S line is also much more susceptible to carcinoma induction. An association of coat color with tumorigenesis was observed in interline F2 segregants. The Car-R and Car-S lines, obtained through a long-lasting breeding program, are a unique model for identifying the QTL involved in chemical tumorigenesis and will be provided to interested investigators.

Skin tumorigenesis by initiators and promoters of different chemical structures in lines of mice selectively bred for resistance (Car-r) or susceptibility (Car-s) to two-stage skin carcinogenesis.

Carcinogenesis-resistant (Car-R) and carcinogenesis-susceptible (Car-S) mice were obtained applying a bi-directional selective breeding approach to a two-stage skin carcinogenesis protocol, using 9,10-dimethyl-1,2-benzanthracene (DMBA) as initiator and 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) as promoter. Sixteen generations of selection produced a remarkable interline difference in responsiveness to two-stage skin carcinogenesis between Car-R and Car-S: identical DMBA (25 microgram) and TPA (5 microgram) doses induced papillomas in 100% of Car-S compared with 3.3% of Car-R mice and maximal responses of 14.3 or 0.03 papillomas/mouse, respectively, despite the shorter promotion applied to Car-S (49 vs. 208 days). To define the factors determining this great difference, Car-R and Car-S mice were challenged by initiators/promoters chemically unrelated to those used for selection. Both lines were subjected to either initiation by N-methyl-N-nitrosourea (MNU) followed by TPA promotion, or promotion by benzoyl peroxide, or 1,8-dihydroxy-3-methyl-9-anthrone (chrysarobin) following DMBA initiation. Initiation with MNU induced a 10-fold tumour incidence in Car-S compared with Car-R mice, and a 32-fold difference in tumour induction rate. The 2 lines also differed markedly in susceptibility to benzoyl peroxide promotion: Car-S mice initiated with 25 microgram DMBA and promoted with 7.5 mg benzoyl peroxide showed a 12-fold tumour incidence and a 103-fold tumour induction rate compared with the corresponding Car-R group. Both lines, however, were refractory to chrysarobin promotion. The progression of papillomas to carcinomas was examined in all Car-S groups. The incidence of mice that developed carcinomas was 57% in MNU-initiated mice. Benzoyl peroxide was also able to promote carcinoma development in Car-S mice, though with a lower incidence (30.4%) than TPA.

Low antibody responsiveness is found to be associated with resistance to chemical skin tumorigenesis in several lines of Biozzi mice.

High and low antibody responder lines of mice from Selections I, III and G were assayed for two-step skin tumorigenesis using a protocol consisting in initiation with 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) and promotion with 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA). Concordant results were obtained in the three selections: low antibody responder mice were shown to be significantly more resistant to tumor induction than the high responder counterparts. The difference was observed for all parameters: kinetics and percentages of tumor incidence and tumor multiplicity. The three bidirectional selective breeding experiments differed in several respects namely, the origin of the foundation populations, the antigens and immunization protocols used during the selection, as well as the breeding unit environments. Therefore, the consistent results relative to tumorigenesis strongly suggest that some of the alleles relevant to multispecific 'low' antibody production could contribute to the resistance to cutaneous chemical tumorigenesis.

Innate resistance to infection by intracellular bacterial pathogens differs in mice selected for maximal or minimal acute inflammatory response.

The intensity of nonspecific immune reaction and the host resistance to facultative intracellular pathogens are found to be associated in lines of mice selected for maximal (AIRmax) or minimal (AIRmin) acute inflammatory reactivity. AIRmax are more resistant than AIRmin mice to Salmonella typhimurium and Listeria monocytogenes infection, the differences between lines in LD50 being > 1000 and 100 times, respectively. This difference was shown to be related to the initial bacterial containment at the infectious focus, and to the control of bacterial multiplication in the spleen during the 1st week after s. c. inoculation of the bacteria. Specific immune responses were not deeply affected by the selective process: antibody production and delayed-type hypersensitivity were both of similar intensity in AIRmax and AIRmin mice. The differential susceptibility to infection seems independent of the Nramp-1 locus polymorphism; therefore, these two lines represent a powerful model for investigating the role of other genetic loci regulating the nonspecific immunity effectors in the course of infectious diseases.

Susceptibility and resistance to Leishmania amazonensis in H-2q syngeneic high and low antibody responder mice (Biozzi mice).

H-2 syngeneic H and L (Biozzi) mice provide a model to study Leishmania infections in which polar resistant and susceptible phenotypes are independent from H-2 differences. High-Ab-responder (H) and low-Ab-responder (L) mice syngeneic at the H-2 locus (H-2q) were, respectively, susceptible and highly resistant to Leishmania amazonensis infection. L-mice resistance was associated with high IFN-gamma and transient IL-4 production by lymph node (LN) cells, in contrast with sustained IL-4 and decreasing IFN-gamma production by susceptible H mice. IL-12 production could be detected only in LN from resistant mice. The cytokine production pattern was consistent with preferential progression to a Th1-type response in resistant L-mice, and to a Th2-type response in susceptible H-mice. We also investigated whether this shift towards Th1- or Th2-type cytokine responses was dependent upon H or L antigen presenting cells' (APC) intrinsic ability to preferentially stimulate either T-cell subset. To this end, LN-derived T-cell lines were grown from 12-day infected mice, when both strains produced IFN-gamma and IL-4. L-derived T-cell lines developed a Th2 cytokine pattern whereas H-derived T-cell lines produced IFN-gamma, IL-4 and IL-10 whatever the APC origin (H or L) used for their derivation. This work constitutes the first characterization of cellular immune responses to the intracellular parasite, L. amazonensis in H-2 syngeneic mice, an infection model in which polar resistant and susceptible phenotypes are determined by non-MHC genes.

Identification of two quantitative trait loci involved in antibody production on mouse chromosome 8.

Several quantitative trait loci (QTLs) contributing to the extreme phenotypes of the selected high (H) and low (L) antibody-responder lines of mice were mapped on distinct chromosomes. Successive backcrosses were bred to reduce the length of the QTL-bearing segment detected on chromosome 8 and to produce congenic lines to test gene effect independently of the other QTLs. An increase in antibody responses was repeatedly found to be associated with inheritance of the H-line allele at two markers separated by 30 cM on that chromosome. In the successive backcrosses, background and unlinked involved genes of H-line origin were progressively eliminated; however, unexpected within-progeny variations persisted in the third and even fourth backcross. Nevertheless, the presence of two QTLs within the considered interval was definitely demonstrated in distinct progenies of the fourth backcross which separately inherited one of the two gene-marker H-line alleles. The previously identified chromosome 8 segment therefore contains at least two QTLs involved in antibody responsiveness.

Effect of genetic modification of acute inflammatory responsiveness on tumorigenesis in the mouse.

Two distinct bidirectional selective breedings for quantitative traits were initiated from identical genetically heterogeneous mouse populations. The resulting lines are characterized by maximal or minimal acute inflammatory responsiveness (AIR): AIRmax and AIRmin lines, respectively, and by resistance or susceptibility to chemical skin tumorigenesis: Car-R and Car-S lines, respectively. The AIR response to s.c. injection of polyacrylamide microbeads, measured by cell content in the local exudate, was 10 times higher in AIRmax than in AIRmin mice. The response to selection was asymmetrical: the realized heritability was 0.26 in AIRmax and 0.008 in AIRmin, and resulted from the additive effect of 7-11 quantitative trait loci (QTL). Low responsiveness was globally dominant in F1 and 48% of F2 segregant variance was found to be due to genetic factors. These findings are the first demonstration of innate regulation of AIR by germ line genes. Susceptibility to skin tumorigenesis induced by a two-stage initiation (DMBA)-promotion (TPA) protocol was lower in AIRmax mice than in AIRmin mice, a 6-fold difference in tumor induction rate. Intense AIR was found to be associated with resistance, and low AIR with susceptibility to tumorigenesis, in F2 segregants chosen for extreme AIR phenotypes. At least some of the AIR QTLs therefore contain genes controlling tumorigenesis. Tumor phenotypes differed more in Car-R and Car-S than in AIRmax and AIRmin lines, indicating that QTLs unrelated to AIR, contribute to the host response to tumorigenesis. The extreme phenotypes/genotypes of the four selected lines and the known genetic constitution of their foundation population, offer new possibilities to discriminate the genes/mechanisms controlling two important traits: AIR and response to chemical tumorigenesis. Collaborative projects will be favorably considered. The description of tumor resistance genes in AIRmax and Car-R mice may be helpful for epidemiology and therapy of human cancer.

Inversion of genetic predisposition to carcinogenesis in liver of two lines of mice selected for resistance (Car-R) or susceptibility (Car-S) to skin carcinogenesis.

Two lines of mice, one resistant (Car-R) and one susceptible (Car-S) to skin carcinogenesis, were produced by bi-directional selective breeding. To see whether the characteristics of susceptibility or resistance to tumorigenesis were also expressed in the liver and lung, the two lines were submitted comparatively to treatment with 5,9-dimethyl dibenzo[c,g]carbazole (DiMeDBC), a potent hepatocarcinogenic derivative of the ubiquitous heterocyclic carcinogenic pollutant, 7H-dibenzo[c,g]-carbazole (DBC). An inversion of genetic predisposition to carcinogenesis in liver was observed. Car-R animals displayed rapid tumorigenesis in 100% of cases while Car-S mice were remarkably less sensitive, showing a 4-fold lower mean tumor multiplicity and a 4-month longer latency time. In parallel adduct formation by DiMeDBC and DBC in liver DNA was analyzed by the 32P-postlabeling method, showing a remarkably higher level in Car-R mice than in Car-S animals. These data indicate that tissue-specific sensibility in carcinogenesis may involve gene expression at various levels.

Innate resistance to infection by intracellular bacterial pathogens differs in mice selected for maximal or minimal acute inflammatory response

The intensity of nonspecific immune reaction and the host resistance to facultative intracellular pathogens are found to be associated in lines of mice selected for maximal (AIRmax) or minimal (AIRmin) acute inflammatory reactivity. AIRmax are more resistant than AIRmin mice to Salmonella typhimurium and Listeria monocytogenes infection, the differences between lines in LD50 being > 1000 and 100 times, respectively. This difference was shown to be related to the initial bacterial containment at the infectious focus, and to the control of bacterial multiplication in the spleen during the 1st week after s. c. inoculation of the bacteria. Specific immune responses were not deeply affected by the selective process: antibody production and delayed-type hypersensitivity were both of similar intensity in AIRmax and AIRmin mice. The differential susceptibility to infection seems independent of the Nramp-1 locus polymorphism; therefore, these two lines represent a powerful model for investigating the role of other genetic loci regulating the nonspecific immunity effectors in the course of infectious diseases.

Genetic control of immune responsiveness, aging and tumor incidence.

Age-related alterations of the immune system affect both antibody and cell-mediated immune responses, T-cell responses being more severely affected than B-cell responses. Within the T-cell population, aging leads to replacement of virgin by memory cells and to accumulation of cells with signal transduction defects. Changes in T-cell subsets and in cytokine production profiles may produce suitable conditions for T-cell-mediated disregulation of antibody responses characterized by the production of low affinity and self-reactive antibodies. Also B-cells exhibit intrinsic defects and natural killer (NK) cell activity a profound loss in old mice. Whether age-related immune disfunctions influence life span and tumor incidence has been examined in mice genetically selected for high or low antibody responsiveness. It has been found that genetic selection of vigorous antibody responses in most cases produces mice with longer life span and lower lymphoma incidence. Moreover, the results of genetic segregation experiments indicate that antibody responsiveness and life span are polygenic traits regulated by a small number of the same or closely linked loci. Mice genetically selected for high or low mitotic responsiveness to PHA exhibit low or high tumor incidence, respectively, but no difference in life span, suggesting that T-cell activity is restricted to immune surveillance of neoplastic transformation. Studies on mice genetically selected for resistance or sensitivity to chemical carcinogenesis have uncovered loci that control both resistance to tumor induction and longevity while have no effects on immunity and disease incidence. Thus, the relative role of the immune system in conditioning the duration and the biological quality of life remains to be determined.

Mice selected for low and high blood magnesium levels: a new model for stress studies.

Extra- and intracellular magnesium levels have previously been shown to be genetically controlled in humans and in the mouse. To further study this genetic regulation, mice were selected from a heterogeneous population, for low (MGL mice) and high (MGH mice) red blood cell (RBC) magnesium values. These values diverged rapidly in the two strains, to reach a stable difference between the 14th and 18th generations. MGL mice also exhibited significantly lower plasma, kidney, and skull bone magnesium contents and higher urinary magnesium excretion and total brain weights. Moreover, in stressful conditions, MGL mice displayed a more aggressive behavior that the control MGH strain. Altogether, MGL mice showed a more restless behavior, a higher rectal temperature, and much higher brain (+17%) and urine (+200%) noradrenaline levels than the MGH animals. These strains, thus, constitute a new animal model for the study of magnesium metabolism and its relationships with catecholamines, stress sensitivity, and aggressive behavior.

Toward genetic dissection of high and low antibody responsiveness in Biozzi mice.

Several distinct chromosomal segments were recently identified by cosegregation analysis of polymorphic markers with antibody responsiveness in an F2 cross between high (H) and low (L) antibody responder lines of Biozzi mice. The effect associated with the relevant markers has now been investigated in backcross populations (toward the L line) bred from H and L mice made coisogenic at the H-2 locus. The antibody titers, measured on days 5 and 14 of the primary response to sheep red blood cells, were considered to be two distinct quantitative phenotypes. The results of single or multilocus analyses demonstrated the significant involvement, at one or the two titration times, of Im gene(s) on four distinct chromosomes: 4, 8, 12, and 18. The regions on chromosomes 6 and 10 have a lesser but still suggestive effect. The contribution of each locus ranged from 3% to 13%, and together these loci accounted for about 40% of the phenotypic variance at each titration time. The data are compatible with an additive effect of the relevant loci and suggestive of some interaction effects. In a second backcross toward L line, the H line alleles of the putative Im genes on chromosomes 6, 8, and 12 were isolated from each other and their effects were still detected.

Genetics of chemical carcinogenesis--III. Tissue-specificity of the genes controlling susceptibility and resistance to skin carcinogenesis in the mouse.

Carcinogenesis-resistant (Car-R) and carcinogenesis-susceptible (Car-S) mice have been obtained by the method of bi-directional selective breeding. After 10 generations of selection Car-R and Car-S mice show a remarkable difference in their response to chemical carcinogenesis. Car-R and Car-S mice, initiated and promoted by skin application of 9,10-dimethyl-1,2-benzanthracene (DMBA) and 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) reach a tumour multiplicity of 0.05 and 6.2, respectively, after 49 days of promotion. When benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) is topically applied for initiation, followed by TPA promotion, Car-R and Car-S mice maintain a large difference in sensitivity to skin tumour induction. Car-S mice are also more susceptible than Car-R mice to complete carcinogenesis produced by single or repeated applications of DMBA only. On the contrary, when DMBA or B[a]P are administered by subcutaneous injection rather than by topical application, no significant difference in tumour incidence is observed between the two lines. All tumours induced by topical administration of carcinogens on the skin are of epithelial origin, whereas the tumours produced by subcutaneous injection are of connectival origin. These observations suggest a tissue-specific effect of the selected genes, probably restricted at the skin level.