Wide-field swept-source optical coherence tomography angiography (SS-OCTA) in the assessment of retinal vessel density and thickness in 4-to 16-year-old myopic children.

PURPOSE: To analyze the characteristics of macular retinal vessel density and thickness in children with myopia. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted. A total of 228 children aged 4-16 years who visited the Ineye Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine from September 2022 to November 2023 were included. Those with -0.5D < spherical equivalent (SE) < +2.0D were included in the non-myopia group (150 eyes), those with -3.0D < SE ≤ -0.5D were included in the low myopia group (246 eyes), and those with SE ≤ -3.0D were included in the moderate-to-high myopia group (60 eyes). All subjects underwent cycloplegic refraction, IOLmaster500, and Wide-field SS-OCTA (to exclude some peripheral retinal degeneration). Multiple linear regression analysis was used to analyze the correlation between macular ETDRS subfield of full retinal thickness (FRT), outer, inner retinal thickness (ORT, IRT), retinal vessel density (VD), deep and superficial retinal vessel density (DVD, SVD), and SE, axial length (AL). RESULTS: There were statistically significant differences (P < 0.05) in FRT in the central fovea (1 mm diameter)and perifovea (Diameter 3 to 6 mm) among the non-myopia group, low myopia group, and moderate-to-high myopia group. The three groups also showed statistically significant differences (P < 0.05) in VD in the central fovea and parafovea with a diameter of 1 to 3 mm (except the lower part). In multiple linear regression analysis adjusted for gender and age, SE and AL were found to be correlated with FRT in all ETDRS regions (except the central fovea) (P < 0.01), and SE and AL were correlated with IRT in the central fovea and perifovea, respectively (ß range -2.302 to 1.652; P < 0.05). SE and AL were also correlated with ORT in the parafovea and perifovea, respectively (ß range -4.371 to -2.344; P < 0.05). AL was negatively correlated with VD in the central fovea and parafovea (except the inferior region) (P < 0.05), as well as with DVD in all ETDRS regions (ß range -1.314 to -1.031; P < 0.05). AL was only negatively correlated with SVD in the parafoveal nasal region (ß = -0.633, P < 0.05). Additionally, the correlation between AL and DVD, ORT was higher than that with SVD, IRT. CONCLUSION: The more severe the myopia, the longer the AL, the thinner the FRT in the perifovea, and the lower the VD in both the fovea and parafovea in children. In addition, DVD and ORT were more significantly correlated with AL, suggesting that they may be more closely related to the growth of AL.

Refraction and ocular biometric parameters in 3-to 6-year-old preschool children : a large-scale population-based study in Chengdu, China.

PURPOSE: To understand the ocular biometric parameters characteristics and refractive errors in 3-to 6-year-old preschool children in Chengdu, China, and to investigate the prevalence of refractive errors. METHOD: A school-based cross-sectional study was conducted in Chengdu from 2020 to2022 with a total of 666 kindergartens. All children were measured by non-cycloplegic autorefraction and uncorrected visual acuity (UCVA) and ocular biometric parameters. Finally, univariate linear regression models were used to analyze the relationship between ocular biometric parameters and refraction. RESULTS: A total of 108,578 preschool children aged 3-6 underwent examinations, revealing a myopia prevalence of 6.1%. The mean axial length (AL), keratometry (K), corneal radius (CR), axial length/corneal radius (AL/CR) Ratio, central corneal thickness (CCT), anterior chamber depth (ACD), lens thickness (LT), and vitreous chamber depth (VCD) were 22.35 ± 0.69 mm, 43.35 ± 1.58 D, 7.80 ± 0.28 mm, 2.87 ± 0.08, 533.31 ± 32.51 µm, 2.70 ± 0.28 mm, 3.91 ± 0.27 mm, and 15.20 ± 0.68 mm, respectively. With increasing age, AL, CR, AL/CR ratio, CCT, ACD, LT, and VCD also increased. Regardless of age, males consistently exhibited longer AL, flatter corneal curvature, shallower ACD, thicker CCT, thinner LT, and longer VCD compared to females. AL, K, CR, LT, and VCD all showed significant linear relationships with SE (all P < 0.001) in univariate linear regression analysis after adjusting for gender and age. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of myopia among preschool children aged 3-6 in Chengdu is relatively low. Ocular biometric parameters affecting refractive errors include AL, K, CR, LT, and VCD. The preschool period serves as a critical phase for myopia prevention and control.

Prevalence and risk factors for astigmatism in 7 to 19-year-old students in Xinjiang, China: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: To investigate the prevalence and risk factors for astigmatism in 7-19-year-old students in Xinjiang, China. METHODS: A school-based, cross-sectional study was conducted on students who underwent refraction examination in Xinjiang, China, between May and December 2019. The prevalence of astigmatism was determined. Astigmatism was defined as cylinder power (C) ≤-0.75 D, undefined astigmatism as ≤-1.50 D, and high astigmatism as C ≤-3.00 D. Astigmatism types were: against-the-rule astigmatism (maximum refraction of the main meridian in 180° ± 30°), with-the-rule astigmatism (maximum refraction of the main meridian at 90°±30°), and oblique astigmatism (all other cases). RESULTS: Of the 71,838 students examined (51.0% boys, 7 - 19 years old), 25,945 (36.1%, 95%CI: 35.52-36.68%) had astigmatism and 1267 (1.8%, 95%CI: 1.07-2.53%) had high astigmatism. The prevalence of astigmatism was greater in Han individuals (39.6%) compared with the Hui (34.0%), Kazakh (34.0%), Kyrgyz (32.1%), and Uyghur (26.4%) populations. Among the 25,945 students with astigmatism, 19,947 had with-the-rule astigmatism (76.9%), 3405 had against-the-rule astigmatism (13.1%), and 2593 had oblique astigmatism (10.0%). Multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that ethnicity (Han individuals more susceptible), male gender, age, and refractive errors (myopia and hyperopia) were independently associated with astigmatism, high astigmatism, and with-the-rule astigmatism (all P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of astigmatism among children and adolescents in Xinjiang was 36.1%, including 1.8% of high astigmatism. In this population, astigmatism was mainly of the with-the-rule astigmatism type (76.9%). Han ethnicity, male gender, and myopia or hyperopia were independently associated with a high risk of astigmatism.

Role of APOE in glaucoma.

Glaucoma is a chronic blinding eye disease caused by the progressive loss of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). Currently, no clinically approved treatment can directly improve the survival rate of RGCs. The Apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene is closely related to the genetic risk of numerous neurodegenerative diseases and has become a hot topic in the field of neurodegenerative disease research in recent years. The optic nerve and retina are extensions of the brain's nervous system. The pathogenesis of retinal degenerative diseases is closely related to the degenerative diseases of the nerves in the brain. APOE consists of three alleles, ε4, ε3, and ε2, in a single locus. They have varying degrees of risk for glaucoma. APOE4 and the APOE gene deletion (APOE-/-) can reduce RGC loss. By contrast, APOE3 and the overall presence of APOE genes (APOE+/+) result in significant loss of RGC bodies and axons, increasing the risk of glaucoma RGCs death. Currently, there is no clear literature indicating that APOE2 is beneficial or harmful to glaucoma. This study summarises the mechanism of different APOE genes in glaucoma and speculates that APOE targeted intervention may be a promising method for protecting against RGCs loss in glaucoma.

Correlation between refractive errors and ocular biometric parameters in children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Refractive errors are one of the most common ocular conditions among children and adolescents, with myopia showing an increasing prevalence and early onset in this population. Recent studies have identified a correlation between refractive errors and ocular biometric parameters. METHODS: A systematic search was conducted in electronic databases including PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, and Medline from January 1, 2012, to May 1, 2023. Various ocular biometric parameters were summarized under different refractive states, including axial length (AL), central corneal thickness (CCT), anterior chamber depth (ACD), lens thickness (LT), corneal curvature (CC), Corneal curvature radius (CR),axial length-to-corneal radius ratio (AL/CR ratio), choroidal thickness (ChT), retinal thickness (RT), retinal nerve fiber layer thickness (RNFL), and retinal blood density (VD). The differences in these parameters among different refractive states were analyzed using Stata software with fixed or random-effects models, taking into account the assessed heterogeneity level. RESULTS: This meta-analysis included a total of 69 studies involving 128,178 eyes, including 48,795 emmetropic eyes, 60,691 myopic eyes, 13,983 hyperopic eyes, 2,040 low myopic eyes, 1,201 moderate myopic eyes, and 1,468 high myopic eyes. The results of our study demonstrated that, compared to the control group (emmetropic group), the myopic group and low, moderate, and high myopic groups showed significant increases in AL, AL/CR ratio, and ACD, while the hyperopic group exhibited significant decreases. Compared to the control group, the myopic group had a significantly increase for CC, while CR, CCT, perifoveal RT, subfoveal ChT, foveal ChT, parafoveal ChT, perifoveal (except nasal) ChT, and pRNFL (except temporal) significantly decreased. Compared to the control group, the hyperopic group had a significantly increase for subfoveal ChT, foveal ChT, parafoveal ChT, perifoveal ChT, and nasal pRNFL. Compared to the control group, the low and moderate myopic groups had a significantly decreases for the CCT, parafoveal RT (except nasal), perifoveal RT (except nasal), and pRNFL (except superior and temporal). Compared to the control group, the high myopic group had a significantly increase for CR, while LT, perifoveal ChT (except nasal), parafoveal RT, perifoveal RT, and pRNFL (except temporal) had significant decreased. CONCLUSION: The changes of ocular biometric parameters in children and adolescents are closely related to refractive errors. Ocular biometric parameters devices, as effective non-invasive techniques, provide objective biological markers for monitoring refractive errors such as myopia.

Prevalence and associated risk factors of dry eye disease in Hotan, Xinjiang: a cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the prevalence of dry eye disease (DED) in the Uyghur population in Hotan, Xinjiang, and to identify risk factors associated with this disorder. METHODS: Between January and September of 2020, 5,121 Uyghur subjects aged 18 - 98 years from 105 villages were selected and studied cross-sectionally using a whole-group random sampling method in the Hotan area, Xinjiang, China. The Ocular Surface Disease Index questionnaire was used to collect subjective symptoms of DED and examine tear-film break-up times. The break up time and Schirmer's test were used to collect objective signs, to determine the prevalence of DED and its risk factors. RESULTS: A total of 5,121 subjects aged 18 - 98 years were recruited from the Uyghur population in the Hotan region of Xinjiang, China, for eye examinations and questionnaire surveys. A total of 40.6% (2,078/5,121) were diagnosed with DED, of which 38.3% were male and 41.9% were female. The prevalence of DED was the highest in subjects ≥ 65 years of age, with 47.8% in males and 53.3% in females. The lowest occurrence was in subjects 18 - 44 years of age, with 32.5% in males and 33.7% in females. Older age, tea drinking, and staying awake late were risk factors affecting the severity of DED prevalence (p < 0.05), but there was no significant difference in sex, presence of diabetes, or presence of hypertension (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION: The prevalence of DED in the study population was 40.6%, and its prevalence was higher in females, when compared with males. The prevalence of dry eye also increased with age, and at an advanced age, female sex, smoking, staying awake late, and not exercising were risk factors for DED.

Different Types of Circulatory Inflammatory Biomarkers Associated with Cerebral Arterial Atherosclerosis and Dolichoectasia.

BACKGROUND: Although inflammation is found to be related to arteriopathy pathogenesis, it is yet to be determined the distinct correlations of specific inflammatory biomarker types contributing to different cerebral large vessel diseases. We aimed to investigate the association between multiple inflammatory biomarkers and cerebral atherosclerosis and dolichoectasia in a community-based sample. METHODS: A total of 960 participants of the Shunyi study were included. A panel of 14 circulatory inflammatory biomarkers was assessed and then grouped in three sets as systemic, endothelial-related, and media-related inflammation, based on underlying different inflammatory cascades. Intracranial atherosclerotic stenosis (ICAS), dolichoectasia estimated by magnetic resonance angiography, and carotid plaques estimated by ultrasound were also performed. RESULTS: Endothelial-related inflammatory group was related to the presence of ICAS (R2 = 0.215, p = 0.024) and carotid plaques (R2 = 0.342, p = 0.013). Backward stepwise elimination showed that E-selectin was prominent (ß = 0.67, 95% CI: 0.54-0.85, p = 0.001; ß = 0.79, 95% CI: 0.68-0.93, p = 0.005). Systemic inflammatory group was associated with an increased basilar artery diameter (R2 = 0.051, p < 0.001), and backward stepwise elimination showed that IL-6 was prominent (ß = 0.07, 95% CI: 0.03-0.11, p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Different types of inflammatory biomarkers were associated with atherosclerosis and dolichoectasia, respectively, implying dissimilar inflammatory processes. Further confirming of their distinct anti-inflammatory roles as potential therapeutic targets is warrant.

Inflammatory biomarkers and cerebral small vessel disease: a community-based cohort study.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Although inflammation has been proposed to be a candidate risk factor for cerebral small vessel disease (CSVD), previous findings remain largely inconclusive and vary according to disease status and study designs. The present study aimed to investigate possible associations between inflammatory biomarkers and MRI markers of CSVD. METHODS: A group of 15 serum inflammatory biomarkers representing a variety of those putatively involved in the inflammatory cascade was grouped and assessed in a cross-sectional study involving 960 stroke-free subjects. The biomarker panel was grouped as follows: systemic inflammation (high-sensitivity C reactive protein (hsCRP), interleukin 6 and tumour necrosis factor α), endothelial-related inflammation (E-selectin, P-selectin, intercellular adhesion molecule 1, vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1), CD40 ligand, lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2, chitinase-3-like-1 protein and total homocysteine (tHCY)) and media-related inflammation (matrix metalloproteinases 2, 3 and 9, and osteopontin). The association(s) between different inflammatory groups and white matter hyperintensity (WMH), lacunes, cerebral microbleeds (CMBs), enlarged perivascular space (PVS) and the number of deep medullary veins (DMVs) were investigated. RESULTS: High levels of serum endothelial-related inflammatory biomarkers were associated with both increased WMH volume (R2=0.435, p=0.015) and the presence of lacunes (R2=0.254, p=0.027). Backward stepwise elimination of individual inflammatory biomarkers for endothelial-related biomarkers revealed that VCAM-1 was significant for WMH (ß=0.063, p=0.005) and tHCY was significant for lacunes (ß=0.069, p<0.001). There was no association between any group of inflammatory biomarkers and CMBs or PVS. Systemic inflammatory biomarkers were associated with fewer DMVs (R2=0.032, p=0.006), and backward stepwise elimination of individual systemic-related inflammatory biomarkers revealed that hsCRP (ß=-0.162, p=0.007) was significant. CONCLUSION: WMH and lacunes were associated with endothelial-related inflammatory biomarkers, and fewer DMVs were associated with systemic inflammation, thus suggesting different underlying inflammatory processes and mechanisms.

Respiratory mucosal immunization with adenovirus gene transfer vector induces helper CD4 T cell-independent protective immunity.

BACKGROUND: Virus-vectored vaccine is a powerful activator of CD8 T cell-mediated immunity and is especially amenable to respiratory mucosal immunization, offering hopes for use in humans with diminished helper CD4 T cell function. However, whether virus-mediated mucosal immunization can produce immune protective CD8 T cells without the CD4 T cell help remains to be investigated. METHODS: We used a replication-deficient adenovirus vector expressing an Mycobacterium tuberculosis antigen Ag85A for intranasal vaccination and evaluated its effect on CD8 T cell activation and protection in mice depleted of CD4 T cells. RESULTS: Intranasal vaccination of CD4 T cell-depleted mice led to suboptimal generation of Ag-specific tetramer(+) or interferon (IFN)-gamma-producing CD8 T cells in the lung and spleen but this was observed mainly at the early time after vaccination. Reduced CD8 T cell priming was also accompanied by decreased CD8 T cell responses (CTL). Nevertheless, the ratio of Ag-specific CD8 T cells to IFN-gamma-producing CD8 T cells in CD4 T cell-depleted hosts remained comparable to that in CD4 T cell-competent hosts. Furthermore, the 'unhelped' CD8 T cells also displayed a similar immune phenotype as the 'helped' counterparts. The animals with 'unhelped' CD8 T cells were as well-protected from pulmonary M. tuberculosis challenge as those with 'helped' CD8 T cells in the absence of CD4 T cells. CONCLUSIONS: The data obtained in the present study suggest that the fully immune protective CD8 T cells can still be generated by respiratory mucosal viral-mediated immunization without CD4 T cells and that CD8 T cells, 'helped' or 'unhelped', can confer significant protection against pulmonary tuberculosis independent of CD4 T cells.

Murine airway luminal antituberculosis memory CD8 T cells by mucosal immunization are maintained via antigen-driven in situ proliferation, independent of peripheral T cell recruitment.

RATIONALE: The airway luminal memory CD8 T cells induced by respiratory mucosal immunization in a murine model have been found to be critical to antituberculosis immunity. However, the mechanisms of their maintenance on airway mucosal surface still remain poorly understood. OBJECTIVES: Using a model of adenovirus-based intranasal immunization we investigated the immune property and the mechanisms of maintenance of airway luminal CD8 T cells. METHODS: Immune properties of airway luminal Mycobacterium tuberculosis antigen-specific CD8 T cells were examined. Proliferation of airway luminal CD8 T cells was determined by in vivo T cell-labeling techniques. The role of peripheral T cell recruitment in maintaining airway luminal CD8 T cells was investigated by blocking lymphocyte trafficking from lymphoid and peripheral tissues. The requirement of M. tuberculosis antigens for in situ T cell proliferation was evaluated using a T cell transfer approach. An airway M. tuberculosis challenge model was used to study the relationship between CD8 T cell-mediated protection and peripheral T cell recruitment. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Intranasal immunization leads to elicitation of persisting M. tuberculosis antigen-specific CD8 T cells in the airway lumen, which display an activated effector memory phenotype different from those in peripheral tissues. Airway luminal T cells continuously proliferate in an antigen-dependent manner, and can be maintained even in the absence of peripheral T cell recruitment. The lungs equipped with such CD8 T cells are protected from airway M. tuberculosis challenge independent of both peripheral T cell supply and CD4 T cells. CONCLUSIONS: Vaccine-inducible airway luminal antituberculosis memory CD8 T cells are self-renewable in an antigen-dependent manner, and can be maintained independent of peripheral T cell supply.

Immunization with a bivalent adenovirus-vectored tuberculosis vaccine provides markedly improved protection over its monovalent counterpart against pulmonary tuberculosis.

Recombinant virus-vectored vaccines hold great promise for tuberculosis (TB) vaccination strategies. However, there is a lack of side-by-side comparative investigations to dissect the functional differences and support the advantage of multivalent virus-vectored vaccine over its monovalent counterpart. We previously successfully developed a monovalent adenovirus (Ad)-vectored vaccine expressing Ag85a (AdAg85a) and demonstrated its superior protective efficacy in models of pulmonary TB. In this study, we have developed a bivalent Ad TB vaccine expressing Ag85a and TB10.4 antigens as a fusion protein (AdAg85a:TB10.4) and compared its T-cell-activating and immune protective efficacy with that by monovalent AdAg85a. A single intranasal (i.n.) administration of AdAg85a:TB10.4 induced robust T-cell responses toward the respective antigens within the airway lumen and spleen, although the level of Ag85a-specific T-cell responses in the airway lumen triggered by bivalent AdAg85a:TB10.4 was lower than that by its monovalent counterpart at earlier time points. Thus, a single i.n. delivery of AdAg85a:TB10.4 conferred a markedly improved and sustained level of protection in the lung against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb) challenge over that by AdAg85a or by conventional BCG immunization with similarly induced levels of protection in the spleen. Our results indicate a unique advantage of multivalent viral-vectored TB vaccines for immunization against pulmonary TB.

Airway delivery of soluble mycobacterial antigens restores protective mucosal immunity by single intramuscular plasmid DNA tuberculosis vaccination: role of proinflammatory signals in the lung.

Protection by parenteral immunization with plasmid DNA vaccines against pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) is very modest. In this study, we have investigated the underlying mechanisms for the poor mucosal protective efficacy and the avenues and mechanisms to improve the efficacy of a single i.m. immunization with a monogenic plasmid DNA TB vaccine in a murine model. We show that i.m. DNA immunization fails to elicit accumulation of Ag-specific T cells in the airway lumen despite robust T cell responses in the spleen. Such systemically activated T cells cannot be rapidly mobilized into the airway lumen upon Mycobacterium tuberculosis exposure. However, airway deposition of low doses of soluble mycobacterial Ags in previously immunized mice effectively mobilizes the systemically activated T cells into the airway lumen. A fraction of such airway luminal T cells can persist in the airway lumen, undergo quick, robust expansion and activation and provide marked immune protection upon airway M. tuberculosis exposure. Airway mucosal deposition of soluble mycobacterial Ags was found to create a tissue microenvironment rich in proinflammatory molecules including chemokines and hence conducive to T cell recruitment. Thus, in vivo neutralization of MIP-1alpha or IFN-inducible protein-10 markedly inhibited the accumulation of Ag-specific T cells in the airway lumen. Our data suggest that immunoprotective efficacy on the mucosal surface by i.m. plasmid DNA immunization could be substantially improved by simple mucosal soluble Ag inoculation and restoration of mucosal luminal T cells. Our study holds implication for the future design of DNA vaccination strategies against intracellular infections.

Mucosally delivered dendritic cells activate T cells independently of IL-12 and endogenous APCs.

In vitro manipulated dendritic cells (DC) have increasingly been used as a promising vaccine formulation against cancer and infectious disease. However, improved understanding of the immune mechanisms is needed for the development of safe and efficacious mucosal DC immunization. We have developed a murine model of respiratory mucosal immunization by using a genetically manipulated DC vaccine. Within 24 h of intranasal delivery, the majority of vaccine DCs migrated to the lung mucosa and draining lymph nodes and elicited a significant level of T cells capable of IFN-gamma secretion and CTL in the airway lumen as well as substantial T cell responses in the spleen. And such T cell responses were associated with enhanced protection against respiratory mucosal intracellular bacterial challenge. In comparison, parenteral i.m. DC immunization did not elicit marked airway luminal T cell responses and immune protection regardless of strong systemic T cell activation. Although repeated mucosal DC delivery boosted Ag-specific T cells in the airway lumen, added benefits to CD8 T cell activation and immune protection were not observed. By using MHC-deficient vaccine DCs, we further demonstrated that mucosal DC immunization-mediated CD8 and CD4 T cell activation does not require endogenous DCs. By using IL-12-deficient vaccine DCs, we also observed that IL-12(-/-) DCs failed to migrate to the lymph nodes but remained capable of T cell activation. Our observations indicate that mucosal delivery of vaccine DCs represents an effective approach to enhance mucosal T cell immunity, which may operate independent of vaccine IL-12 and endogenous DCs.

Organ distribution of transgene expression following intranasal mucosal delivery of recombinant replication-defective adenovirus gene transfer vector.

It is believed that respiratory mucosal immunization triggers more effective immune protection than parenteral immunization against respiratory infection caused by viruses and intracellular bacteria. Such understanding has led to the successful implementation of intranasal immunization in humans with a live cold-adapted flu virus vaccine. Furthermore there has been an interest in developing effective mucosal-deliverable genetic vaccines against other infectious diseases. However, there is a concern that intranasally delivered recombinant viral-based vaccines may disseminate to the CNS via the olfactory tissue. Initial experimental evidence suggests that intranasally delivered recombinant adenoviral gene transfer vector may transport to the olfactory bulb. However, there is a lack of quantitative studies to compare the relative amounts of transgene products in the respiratory tract, lung, olfactory bulb and brain after intranasal mucosal delivery of viral gene transfer vector. To address this issue, we have used fluorescence macroscopic imaging, luciferase quantification and PCR approaches to compare the relative distribution of transgene products or adenoviral gene sequences in the respiratory tract, lung, draining lymph nodes, olfactory bulb, brain and spleen. Intranasal mucosal delivery of replication-defective recombinant adenoviral vector results in gene transfer predominantly in the respiratory system including the lung while it does lead to a moderate level of gene transfer in the olfactory bulb. However, intranasal inoculation of adenoviral vector leads to little or no viral dissemination to the major region of the CNS, the brain. These experimental findings support the efficaciousness of intranasal adenoviral-mediated gene transfer for the purpose of mucosal immunization and suggest that it may not be of significant safety concern.