Prevalence and sources of polychlorinated biphenyls in the atmospheric environment of Lake Victoria, East Africa.

The large surface area of Lake Victoria (about 68,800 km2) makes it vulnerable to high atmospheric deposition of chemical pollutants. We present measurements of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) from the lake's atmospheric environment. High volume air (24 h) samples were collected within the northern Lake Victoria watershed in Uganda over two periods; 1999-2004 [at Kakira (KAK) and Entebbe (EBB)] and 2008-2010 (at EBB only). Precipitation samples were also collected monthly during the 2008-2010 period at EBB. Analysis for PCBs was done using GC-µECD in a dual column approach. The ranges of ΣPCB concentrations in the KAK air samples were 154-462 pg m-3 (KAK 1999-2000), 26.7-226 pg m-3 (KAK 2003-2004), 27.0-186 pg m-3 (EBB 2003), 46.8-174 pg m-3 (EBB 2004), 19.2-128 pg m-3 (EBB 2008), 45.8-237 pg m-3 (EBB 2009) and 65.6-244 pg m-3 (EBB 2010). The di-, tri-, tetra- and penta-PCBs were predominant in air sample sets while the tetra- and penta-PCBs were predominant in precipitation samples. The mean flux of ΣPCBs in the precipitation samples was 26.9 ng m-2 (range of 14.8-41.5 and median of 27.5). Concentrations at EBB were lower than those reported elsewhere for urban sites in the East and Central African region. Multivariate analysis and analysis of air mass movements suggested influence of combustion sources on the PCB profiles from the region, especially, from the major East African urbanized regions.

Legacy and currently used pesticides in the atmospheric environment of Lake Victoria, East Africa.

The Lake Victoria watershed has extensive agricultural activity with a long history of pesticide use but there is limited information on historical use or on environmental levels. To address this data gap, high volume air samples were collected from two sites close to the northern shore of Lake Victoria; Kakira (KAK) and Entebbe (EBB). The samples, to be analyzed for pesticides, were collected over various periods between 1999 and 2004 inclusive (KAK 1999-2000, KAK 2003-2004, EBB 2003 and EBB 2004 sample sets) and from 2008 to 2010 inclusive (EBB 2008, EBB 2009 and EBB 2010 sample sets). The latter sample sets (which also included precipitation samples) were also analyzed for currently used pesticides (CUPs) including chlorpyrifos, chlorthalonil, metribuzin, trifluralin, malathion and dacthal. Chlorpyrifos was the predominant CUP in air samples with average concentrations of 93.5, 26.1 and 3.54 ng m(-3) for the EBB 2008, 2009, 2010 sample sets, respectively. Average concentrations of total endosulfan (ΣEndo), total DDT related compounds (ΣDDTs) and hexachlorocyclohexanes (ΣHCHs) ranged from 12.3-282, 22.8-130 and 3.72-81.8 pg m(-3), respectively, for all the sample sets. Atmospheric prevalence of residues of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) increased with fresh emissions of endosulfan, DDT and lindane. Hexachlorobenzene (HCB), pentachlorobenzene (PeCB) and dieldrin were also detected in air samples. Transformation products, pentachloroanisole, 3,4,5-trichloroveratrole and 3,4,5,6-tetrachloroveratrole, were also detected. The five most prevalent compounds in the precipitation samples were in the order chlorpyrifos>chlorothalonil>ΣEndo>ΣDDTs>ΣHCHs with average fluxes of 1123, 396, 130, 41.7 and 41.3 ng m(-2)sample(-1), respectively. PeCB exceeded HCB in precipitation samples. The reverse was true for air samples. Backward air trajectories suggested transboundary and local emission sources of the analytes. The results underscore the need for a concerted regional vigilance in management of chemicals.

Atmospheric concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the watershed of Lake Victoria, East Africa.

In the first study of its kind in Africa, PAHs were measured in high volume (24 h) air samples collected from two sampling stations, at Kakira and Entebbe (KAK and EBB, respectively) within the Lake Victoria watershed in Uganda, to assess source contributions and generate a baseline reference data set for future studies in the East African region. Sampling was conducted over two periods [2000-2004 (KAK and EBB1) and 2008-2010 (EBB2)]. The samples were extracted by accelerated solvent extraction and analyzed for 30 PAHs by GC-MS. The mean total PAH concentrations (ng/m(3)) were found to be 74.3 (range; 19.3-311, N = 39) for KAK, 56.8 (range; 13.3-126, N = 22) for EBB1 and 33.1 (range; 4.91-108, N = 56) for EBB2. The 3-ringed PAHs were the most predominant group with mean concentrations of 35.9 ng/m(3)(EBB1), 30.5 ng/m(3)(KAK) and 23.2 ng/m(3)(EBB2). Naphthalene had an exceptionally high mean concentration (21.9 ng/m(3)) for KAK compared to 0.44 and 0.39 ng/m(3) in EBB1 and EBB2 respectively, likely due to intensive agricultural operations nearby KAK. Principal component and diagnostic ratio analyses showed that the measured levels of PAHs were associated with mixed sources, combustion of petroleum, and biomass being the major sources.