Antibodies to capsular polysaccharides of group B Streptococcus in pregnant Canadian women: relationship to colonization status and infection in the neonate.

In a cohort study of 1207 pregnant women in Alberta, Canada, the serotype distributions of vaginal-rectal group B Streptococcus (GBS) isolates were compared with all isolates from neonates with invasive GBS disease identified by population-based surveillance. Serum concentrations of Ia, Ib, II, III, and V capsular polysaccharide (CPS)-specific IgG also were determined, according to serotype of the vaginal-rectal colonizing GBS strain. GBS colonization was detected in 19.5% (235 of 1207) of women. Serotype III accounted for 20.6% (48 of 233) of colonizing strains available for typing but for 37% (27 of 73) of invasive isolates from neonates (P<.01). Maternal colonization with type III was least likely to be associated with moderate concentrations of III CPS-specific IgG. Serotype III GBS is more invasive than other serotypes in this population; this may be due, at least in part, to poor maternal type III CPS-specific antibody response.

Defective stem cell factor expression in c-myb null fetal liver stroma.

High levels of c-Myb are observed in immature precursor myeloid and lymphoid cells, while downregulation of c-myb accompanies terminal differentiation to a mature phenotype. This has established c-Myb as a crucial transcription factor for hematopoiesis. Further evidence for this is the embryonic death of the c-myb homozygous mutant mouse at ED15 due to defective fetal liver erythropoiesis. Cells from fetal liver of wild-type and c-myb-/- embryos were examined in detail for their hematopoietic potential and the capacity of the stroma to support wild-type hematopoiesis. The c-myb-/- fetal liver was shown to harbor sevenfold fewer spleen focus-forming cells and a similarly lower number of cells with long-term repopulating capacity (high proliferative potential cells). However, shorter term repopulating cells were not substantially reduced. c-myb-/- stromal cells were unable to support the proliferation of wild-type bone marrow lineage-negative cells. This was found to be partly due to a decrease in stem cell factor (SCF) expression while partial rescue of the stromal cell cultures was achieved through the addition of exogenous SCF. DNA binding studies for two sites within the SCF promoter demonstrated an in vitro interaction between the SCF promoter and c-Myb and transient transfection studies demonstrated that c-Myb could substantially transactivate the SCF promoter in HEK293 cells. These data explain why the c-myb-/- embryos are so impaired in their ability to establish hematopoiesis.

Initiation of adult myelopoiesis can occur in the absence of c-Myb whereas subsequent development is strictly dependent on the transcription factor.

The c-Myb transcriptional regulator is crucial to the development and functioning of haemopoietic cells, so much so that mouse embryos homozygous for an inactivated c-myb allele die from anaemia at about day 15 of gestation. By analysing c-myb(-/-) chimaeras we show that no mature cells of any lymphoid or myeloid lineage can be detected in adult haemopoietic tissues. This demonstrates that the effects of c-myb ablation on haemopoiesis are cell autonomous and correlates with an absence in the c-myb(-/-) foetal liver of uni- and multilineage CFUs. Indeed, CFU assays performed on E8.5 yolk sac cells revealed that haemopoietic progenitors are already defective at this stage. However, although cells expressing high levels of c-Kit were absent, we could detect a high proportion of CD34+CD45+ cells in the c-myb(-/-) foetal liver. Examination of chimaeric embryos revealed that c-myb(-/-) donor-derived CD34+/Kit+ cells, representing committed definitive progenitors, initially populated the foetal liver, but are unable to expand like wild type progenitors. Our results showing no megakaryocytic CFUs and a reduction in the absolute numbers of megakaryocytes in the c-myb(-/-) foetal liver also refute early suggestions that megakaryopoiesis is unaffected by the absence of c-Myb.

In vitro differentiation of c-myb(-/-) ES cells reveals that the colony forming capacity of unilineage macrophage precursors and myeloid progenitor commitment are c-Myb independent.

Mice homozygous for an inactivated c-myb allele exhibit embryonic (primitive) blood formation but die at about day 15 of gestation because of a failure to generate adult (definitive) haemopoiesis. Recently, it has been shown that commitment to definitive haemopoiesis does occur in vivo, but that some point in the subsequent development towards the differentiated lineages is compromised. Here we have asked whether it is possible to demonstrate this same distinction between the development of primitive and definitive haemopoiesis during the in vitro differentiation of c-myb null ES cells, and whether this can be used to define more precisely at which developmental stage the absence of c-Myb blocks the adult haemopoietic lineages. We investigated the kinetics of progenitor formation and commitment to differentiation using a combination of colony forming assays and analysis of RNA and surface antigen expression. Primitive unilineage macrophage and erythroid precursor commitment could develop in the absence of c-Myb. No precursors characteristic of definitive haemopoiesis were detected; nevertheless, we could show the expression of a programme of transcription and surface antigens which is consistent with the appearance of definitive progenitors blocked at an early multipotential stage.

The Oak Ridge Polycystic Kidney (orpk) disease gene is required for left-right axis determination.

Analysis of several mutations in the mouse is providing useful insights into the nature of the genes required for the establishment of the left-right axis during early development. Here we describe a new targeted allele of the mouse Tg737 gene, Tg737(Delta)2-3(beta)Gal), which causes defects in left-right asymmetry and other abnormalities during embryogenesis. The Tg737 gene was originally identified based on its association with the mouse Oak Ridge Polycystic Kidney (orpk) insertional mutation, which causes polycystic kidney disease and other defects. Complementation tests between the original orpk mutation and the new targeted knock-out mutation demonstrate that Tg737(Delta)2-3(beta)Gal) behaves as an allele of Tg737. The differences in the phenotype between the two mutations suggest that the orpk mutation is a hypomorphic allele of the Tg737 gene. Unlike the orpk allele, where all homozygotes survive to birth, embryos homozygous for the Tg737(Delta)2-3(beta)Gal) mutation arrest in development at mid-gestation and exhibit neural tube defects, enlargement of the pericardial sac and, most notably, left-right asymmetry defects. At mid-gestation the direction of heart looping is randomized, and at earlier stages in development lefty-2 and nodal, which are normally expressed asymmetrically, exhibit symmetrical expression in the mutant embryos. Additionally, we determined that the ventral node cells in mutant embryos fail to express the central cilium, which is a characteristic and potentially functional feature of these cells. The expression of both Shh and Hnf3(beta) is downregulated in the midline at E8.0, indicating that there are significant alterations in midline development in the Tg737(Delta)2-3(beta)Gal) homozygous embryos. We propose that the failure of ventral node cells to fully mature alters their ability to undergo differentiation as they migrate out of the node to contribute to the developing midline structures. Analysis of this new knockout allele allows us to define a critical role for the Tg737 gene during early embryogenesis. We have named the product of the Tg737 gene Polaris, which is based on the various polarity related defects associated with the different alleles of the Tg737 gene.

c-Myb is critical for murine colon development.

The mammalian colon develops from a simple tube of undifferentiated cells into a complex, highly ordered organ, with a continuously self-renewing epithelial layer. We have previously described c-Myb expression in the epithelia of murine and human colon crypts and documented increased expression in colorectal adenocarcinoma cells. To investigate the role of c-Myb in colonic epithelium development, we have used embryos with a disrupted c-myb gene. Prior to the in utero death of these embryos at E15, we excised colon tissue and transplanted it under the kidney capsule of recipient mice to allow further development and cyto-differentiation. Compared to the colons of wildtype and heterozygous littermates, the c-myb homozygous knockout colon is highly irregular with a disordered epithelium and abnormal crypts. In addition, the expression of Bcl-2, a known target of c-Myb, is reduced and apoptosis is increased, indicating a critical requirement for c-Myb in normal colon development.

Hematopoietic cells in cultures of the murine embryonic aorta-gonad-mesonephros region are induced by c-Myb.

Definitive hematopoiesis begins in the para-aortic, splanchnopleural (P-Sp) and aorta-gonad-mesonephros (AGM) regions of mouse embryos and then switches to the fetal liver [1] [2] [3]. Gene-targeted mice lacking the c-Myb transcription factor have severe hematopoietic defects in the fetal liver [4]. The role of c-Myb, if any, in P-Sp/AGM hematopoiesis has not been examined, however. Recently, we reported that oncostatin M can effectively expand both hematopoietic and endothelial-like cells from in vitro cultures of the AGM region [5]. Using this cell culture system, we examined the involvement of c-Myb in definitive hematopoiesis in the P-Sp and AGM regions. When primary cultures from the P-Sp or AGM regions of wild-type mouse embryos were probed with an anti-c-Myb antibody, hematopoietic cells but not endothelial-like cells showed positive staining. In contrast, in the P-Sp/AGM culture from c-myb(-/-) embryos, no hematopoietic cells were generated and endothelial-like cells predominated, indicating that the impairment of hematopoiesis in the liver of c-myb(-/-) embryos is actually preceded by a defect in P-Sp/AGM hematopoiesis. Hematogenic precursor cells were, however, still present in an inert but competent form among the endothelial-like, adherent cell population of c-myb(-/-) P-Sp/AGM cultures. When infected with a retrovirus carrying c-myb cDNA, these cultures gave rise to a significant number of hematopoietic cells. The rescued cells, unlike wild-type hematopoietic cells, were negative for c-Kit (a marker of hematopoietic progenitors), but did express other hematopoietic cell surface markers such as Mac-1, Gr-1 (myeloid markers), CD19, B220, Thy-1.2 (Iymphoid markers), and Ter119 (an erythroid marker). Thus, c-Myb plays a role in the generation of hematopoietic cells in the embryonic P-Sp and AGM regions.

Nspl1, a new Z-band-associated protein.

Molecular characterization of a novel gene designated Neuroendocrine-Specific Protein-Like-1 (Nspl1) had revealed that this gene is expressed as two transcripts, a 1.2 kb transcript found predominantly in skeletal muscle and a 2.1 kb transcript expressed in the brain. The exceptionally high level of skeletal muscle expression prompted us to determine where the protein is localized to skeletal muscle. In vitro studies were performed using two plasmid constructs that generate full-length Nspl1 muscle-specific protein fused to the green fluorescent protein (GFP). In one construct, the GFP cDNA was fused to the N-terminus of the Nspl1 cDNA while in the second construct, the GFP cDNA was fused to the C-terminus of the Nspl1 cDNA. Transfection of either plasmid into mononucleated myoblasts showed that the Nspl1-GFP chimeric protein was associated with intermediate filaments. This was confirmed by using an antibody to stain desmin and finding that GFP-Nspl1 colocalizes with desmin. Chick primary myoblasts were transfected with the chimeric cDNAs and allowed to differentiate into mature myotubes. Results from this analysis and the use of monoclonal antibody to stain alpha-actinin, further localized the Nspl1 protein to the Z-band of mature myotubes. Confocal microscopy of the myotubes containing Nspl1-GFP demonstrates that Nspl1 is distributed continuously throughout the Z-disks.

AML1(-/-) embryos do not express certain hematopoiesis-related gene transcripts including those of the PU.1 gene.

The AML1 and PEBP2beta/CBFbeta genes encode the DNA-binding and non-binding subunits, respectively, of the heterodimeric transcription factor, PEBP2/CBF. Targeting each gene results in an almost identical phenotype, namely the complete lack of definitive hematopoiesis in the fetal liver on embryonic day 11.5 (E11.5). We examined and compared the expression levels of various hematopoiesis-related genes in wild type embryos and in embryos mutated for AML1 or PEBP2beta/CBFbeta. The RNAs were prepared from the yolk sacs of E9.5 embryos, from the aorta-gonad- mesonephros regions of E11.5 embryos and from the livers of E11.5 embryos and RT-PCR was performed to detect various gene transcripts. Transcripts were detected for most of the hematopoiesis-related genes that encode transcription factors, cytokines and cytokine receptors, even in tissues from homozygously targeted embryos. On the other hand, PU.1 transcripts were never detected in any tissue of AML1(-/-) or PEBP2beta/CBFbeta(-/-) embryos. In addition, transcripts for the Vav, flk-2/flt-3, M-CSF receptor, G-CSF receptor and c-Myb genes were not detected in certain tissues of the (-/-) embryos. The results suggest that the expression of a particular set of hematopoiesis-related genes is closely correlated with the PEBP2/CBF function.

CD34 expression by embryonic hematopoietic and endothelial cells does not require c-Myb.

CD34 is a cell-surface glycoprotein expressed in a developmental, stage-specific manner by bone marrow stem and progenitor cells. In this study we explored a possible role for c-Myb in CD34 regulation during developmental hematopoiesis. The results indicate that c-Myb can induce CD34 expression in hematopoietic and nonhematopoietic cells, and that murine CD34 promoter activity is enhanced in myeloid cells transgenic for c-Myb. To test whether c-Myb is necessary for CD34 expression during developmental hematopoiesis in vitro, c-Myb-null D3 embryonic stem (ES) cells were analyzed for their ability to develop CD34+ hematopoietic cells in vitro. CD34 promoter activity in transient transfections and CD34 upregulation during ES cell differentiation into embryoid bodies was identical in wild-type and c-Myb-null ES cells, indicating that c-Myb is not required for CD34 expression. CD34 protein is expressed on both hematopoietic and endothelial cells of the E8.5 blood islands during the development of c-Myb-null embryos, and expression is nearly identical in wild-type and c-Myb-null embryos. However, in E12.5 c-Myb-null embryos, the majority of identifiable CD34+ cells in the developing liver are endothelial rather than hematopoietic, which is consistent with the absence of colony-forming units in c-Myb-null embryos and developing ES cells. These data indicate that c-Myb is not required for CD34 expression in endothelial or primitive hematopoietic cells in the yolk sac, but is necessary for definitive hematopoiesis.

Molecular cloning of a novel mouse gene with predominant muscle and neural expression.

Because numerous diseases affect the muscle and nervous systems, it is important to identify and characterize genes that may play functional roles in these tissues. Sequence analysis of a 106-kb region of human Chromosome (Chr) 19q13.2 revealed a novel gene with homology to the Neuroendocrine-specific protein (NSP), and it has, therefore, been designated NSP-like 1 (Nspl1). We isolated the mouse homolog of this gene and performed extensive expression analysis of both the mouse and human genes. The mouse Nspl1 gene is alternatively spliced to produce two major transcripts: a 2.1-kb mRNA that is expressed at highest levels in the brain, and a 1.2-kb transcript that is primarily expressed in muscle. The larger message contains 10 exons, whereas the smaller transcript contains 7 exons. The last 6 exons, which are present in both transcripts, share significant amino acid sequence identity with the endoplasmic reticulum-bound portion of NSP. Mouse and human Nspl1/NSPL1 genes have expression patterns that are similar to that of the dystrophin gene. In addition, the putative regulatory domains of Nspl1 appear similar in composition and distribution to the defined dystrophin regulatory sequences.

c-Myb function in fibroblasts.

The protooncogene c-myb is a nuclear transcription factor that shares significant sequence homology with two other myb family members, A-myb and B-myb. Recent studies have suggested that c-myb is involved in regulation of the cell cycle via control of intracellular calcium [Ca2+]i concentration. Given the limited cell type expression of the c-myb gene, we set out to investigate whether myb-dependent cell cycle regulation occurs in cells not known to express the c-myb protein. NIH 3T3 fibroblasts were stably transfected with an inducible c-myb dominant negative construct composed of a myb DNA binding domain linked to the Drosophila engrailed transcription suppresser (pGREMEn) and a full-length murine c-myb cDNA sequence. Induced expression of the dominant negative construct was associated with a G1 cell cycle arrest and a failure to increase late G1 intracellular calcium levels. Similar expression studies in mouse embryonic fibroblasts derived from the c-myb knockout mouse have demonstrated lower baseline [Ca2+]i levels than in normal mice fibroblasts that were not further lowered by MEn expression. We conclude that regulation of calcium homeostasis and cell cycle progression via myb-dependent transcription may play an important role in cells not possessing detectable levels of c-myb protein.

c-Myb and Ets proteins synergize to overcome transcriptional repression by ZEB.

The Zfh family of zinc finger/homeodomain proteins was first identified in Drosophila where it is required for differentiation of tissues such as the central nervous system and muscle. ZEB, a vertebrate homolog of Zfh-1, binds a subset of E boxes and blocks myogenesis through transcriptional repression of muscle genes. We present evidence here that ZEB also has an important role in controlling hematopoietic gene transcription. Two families of transcription factors that are required for normal hematopoiesis are c-Myb and Ets. These factors act synergistically to activate transcription, and this synergy is required for transcription of at least several important hematopoietic genes. ZEB blocks the activity of c-Myb and Ets individually, but together the factors synergize to resist this repression. Such repression imposes a requirement for both c-Myb and Ets for transcriptional activity, providing one explanation for why synergy between these factors is important. The balance between repression by ZEB and transcriptional activation by c-Myb/Ets provides a flexible regulatory mechanism for controlling gene expression in hematopoietic cells. We demonstrate that one target of this positive/negative regulation in vivo is the alpha4 integrin, which play a key role in normal hematopoiesis and function of mature leukocytes.

The Evi1 proto-oncogene is required at midgestation for neural, heart, and paraxial mesenchyme development.

The ecotropic viral integration site-1 (Evi1) locus was initially identified as a common site of retroviral integration in myeloid tumors of the AKXD-23 recombinant inbred mouse strain. The full-length Evi1 transcript encodes a putative transcription factor, containing ten zinc finger motifs found within two domains of the protein. To determine the biological function of the Evi1 proto-oncogene, the full-length, but not an alternately spliced, transcript was disrupted using targeted mutagenesis in embryonic stem cells. Evi1 homozygous mutant embryos die at approximately 10.5 days post coitum. Mutants were distinguished at 10.5 days post coitum by widespread hypocellularity, hemorrhaging, and disruption in the development of paraxial mesenchyme. In addition, defects in the heart, somites, and cranial ganglia were detected and the peripheral nervous system failed to develop. These results correlated with whole-mount in situ hybridization analyses of embryos which showed expression of the Evi1 proto-oncogene in embryonic mesoderm and neural crest-derived cells associated with the peripheral nervous system. These data suggest that Evi1 has important roles in general cell proliferation, vascularization, and cell-specific developmental signaling, at midgestation.

Identification and characterization of a seven transmembrane hormone receptor using differential display.

Targeted mutagenesis analysis has shown that the Cmyb proto-oncogene, which encodes a sequence-specific DNA binding protein, is required for normal murine fetal liver erythropoiesis and myelopoiesis. To identify novel genes involved in hematopoiesis, differential display analysis was conducted using total liver RNA isolated from 14.5-day postcoitus Cmyb wildtype, heterozygous, and homozygous mutant littermates. Using 4 oligo(dT) 3' primers and 5 arbitrary decamers as 5' primers, 22 differentially expressed genes have been identified. Eight putatively novel genes were identified from 12 cDNAs that were sequenced. One gene, initially designated DD7A5-7, is primarily expressed in cells of the myeloid lineage. The full-length DD7A5-7 cDNA is 3239 nucleotides, encoding a putative protein of 931 amino acids. The protein is a member of a family of hormone receptors containing 7 transmembrane segments. The receptor also contains 7 epidermal growth factor-like (Egf-like) motifs at the amino terminal of the predicted protein. The gene is alternatively spliced, resulting in the deletion of one or more copies of the Egf-like motif. DD7A5-7 maps to mouse Chromosome 17 and is the putative homologue of EMR1, a recently described Egf-like module containing mucin-like hormone receptor with 7 transmembrane segments in humans. Our results indicate that the Cmyb mutant fetuses represent a unique resource for identifying genes involved in hematopoiesis.

Mapping individual cosmid DNAs by direct AFM imaging.

Individual cosmid clones have been restriction mapped by directly imaging, with the atomic force microscope (AFM), a mutant EcoRI endonuclease site-specifically bound to DNA. Images and data are presented that locate six restriction sites, predicted from gel electrophoresis, on a 35-kb cosmid isolated from mouse chromosome 7. Measured distances between endonuclease molecules bound to lambda DNA, when compared to known values, demonstrate the accuracy of AFM mapping to better than 1%. These results may be extended to identify other important site-specific protein-DNA interactions, such as transcription factor and mismatch repair enzyme binding, difficult to resolve by current techniques.

Comparative analysis of a conserved zinc finger gene cluster on human chromosome 19q and mouse chromosome 7.

Several lines of evidence now suggest that many of the zinc-finger-containing (ZNF) genes in the human genome are arranged in clusters. However, little is known about the structure or function of the clusters or about their conservation throughout evolution. Here, we report the analysis of a conserved ZNF gene cluster located in human chromosome 19q13.2 and mouse chromosome 7. Our results indicate that the human cluster consists of at least 10 related Kruppel-associated box (KRAB)-containing ZNF genes organized in tandem over a distance of 350-450 kb. Two cDNA clones representing genes in the murine cluster have been studied in detail. The KRAB A domains of these genes are nearly identical and are highly similar to human 19q13.2-derived KRAB sequences, but DNA-binding ZNF domains and other portions of the genes differ considerably. The two murine genes display distinct expression patterns, but are coexpressed in some adult tissues. These studies pave the way for a systematic analysis of the evolution of structure and function of genes within the numerous clustered ZNF families located on human chromosome 19 and elsewhere in the human and mouse genomes.

Functional analysis of the c-myb proto-oncogene.

Targeted mutagenesis studies were initiated to determine the normal biological function of the c-myb proto-oncogene. While heterozygous mice are phenotypically indistinguishable from their wild-type littermates, homozygous mutant fetuses die at approximately 15.5 days of gestation apparently due to anemia, which results from an inability to switch from embryonic yolk sac to fetal liver erythropoiesis. Studies are currently being done to determine the extent of hematopoietic abnormalities in the homozygous mutant fetuses. In vitro assays for hematopoietic colony-forming cells have been used to determine the frequency of both erythroid and myeloid progenitors in the fetal livers of wild-type, heterozygous, and homozygous mutant c-myb fetuses. The reduced number of erythroid progenitors was not unexpected considering the mutant fetus's pale color and reduced hematocrit. The dramatically reduced number of colonies derived from myeloid progenitors in the mutant fetuses in comparison to the number detected in phenotypically normal littermates suggests that expression of the c-myb proto-oncogene is critical for the proliferation and/or differentiation of early hematopoietic progenitors and possibly hematopoietic stem cells. Other possible explanations would include a hematopoietic progenitor migration problem from the yolk sac to the fetal liver or a defect in the microenvironment of the liver. Whether the lymphoid lineage is also adversely affected by the lack of c-myb expression remains to be determined. RT-PCR and Northern blot analyses were used in an attempt to identify downstream genes which may be directly or indirectly regulated by the Myb gene product. While the levels of expression of several genes involved in erythropoiesis (GATA-1, NF-E2, SCL, and EpoR) were reduced in the livers of homozygous mutant fetuses in comparison to phenotypically normal littermates and one gene, Kit ligand (KL), was expressed at higher levels in the mutant livers, these results must be viewed with caution. The livers of the mutant fetuses have been shown to be hypocellular in comparison to those of phenotypically normal littermates (35). It is possible that the Myb gene product is directly or indirectly modulating the expression of these genes. Conversely, the alteration in expression may be due to the reduced number or absence of specific hematopoietic lineages in the livers of the mutant fetuses. Differential display has also been used to identify putative novel genes that are involved in hematopoiesis. Preliminary studies suggest that this may be a powerful methodology to compare the expression pattern of genes in the fetal liver of wild-type, heterozygous, and homozygous mutant littermates at 14.5 days of gestation. To date nearly 60% of the partial cDNAs subcloned analyzed have been shown to be differentially expressed. More importantly, 75% of the differentially expressed cDNAs that have been sequenced appear to encode novel genes. Whether any of these novel genes are involved in the c-myb transcriptional cascade remains to be determined. Overall, analysis of the c-myb mutant fetuses have provided valuable insight into the biological function of this interesting proto-oncogene. The continued analysis of this resource will undoubtedly provide additional information concerning the role of the c-myb gene in hematopoiesis.

Lymphotoxin-alpha-deficient mice. Effects on secondary lymphoid organ development and humoral immune responsiveness.

Targeted mutagenesis in embryonic stem cells was used to generate mice deficient in lymphotoxin-alpha (LT-alpha). Mice lacking LT-alpha -/- (LT-alpha -/- mice) exhibit a phenotype dominated by defects in secondary lymphoid organ development. LT-alpha -/- mice lack lymph nodes and Peyer's patches, and possess spleens in which the usual architecture is disrupted. However, in a few of the mutants, abnormal lymph node-like structures were observed, mainly within the mesenteric fat. Abnormal clusters of lymphocytes were also found to accumulate in the periportal and perivascular regions of the liver and lung of LT-alpha -/- mice. Yet, lymphocytes from LT-alpha -/- mice appeared phenotypically normal, expressing the expected ratios of B and T cell surface markers as well as the lymphocyte homing marker, L-selectin. In addition, bone marrow cells from LT-alpha -/- mice were able to successfully reconstitute the lymphoid organs of severe combined immunodeficient mice. However, LT-alpha -/- mutant mice examined for humoral immune responsiveness were found to be impaired in their ability to respond to different Ag. These data illustrate the utility of this mouse model as a system for understanding lymphoid organ development and its effects on immune responsiveness.

Gene targeting of the immune system: the surprises continue.

To date, an impressive number of mutant mice strains have been generated by targeted mutagenesis of the immune system. During the past year, such knockout mice have been particularly valuable in revealing the biological functions of certain cytokines and their receptors, and also in identifying cell surface molecules critical for T-cell activation. Advances in targeting technologies also figure prominently in the accomplishments of the past year, with cell type specific gene targeting representing a major refinement of current methodologies.