Plasma Neuron-Specific Enolase is not a reliable biomarker for staging Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense sleeping sickness patients.

OBJECTIVE: Currently, the only available staging criterion for T. b. rhodesiense requires a lumber puncture to collect and later examine cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). This study examined the potential of plasma Neuron-Specific Enolase (NSE) in discriminating between early and late-stage patients. RESULTS: When median NSE levels were compared between early and late-stage patients, results showed a significant (P < 0.02) upregulation among late-stage patients (599.8 ng/mL). No significant differences (P > 0.9) in NSE levels were observed between early-stage patients (300 ng/mL) and controls (454 ng/mL). We used Receiver Operator Characteristic (ROC) curves to explore the likelihood of using plasma NSE as a potential stage biomarker in discriminating between early and late-stage HAT patients. Our results showed that NSE demonstrated an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.702 (95% CI 0.583-0.830). A high staging accuracy for NSE was obtained by using a cutoff of > 346.5 ng/mL with a sensitivity of 68.6% (95% CI 55-79.7%) and a specificity of 93.3% (95% CI 70.2-99.7%). Although our results demonstrate that plasma NSE is upregulated in T. b. rhodesiense sleeping sickness patients, its value in discriminating between late and early-stage patients is limited. However, future studies could consider improving its specificity by combining it with other identified plasma biomarkers.

Morphological re-description and molecular identification of Tabanidae (Diptera) in East Africa.

Biting flies of the family Tabanidae are important vectors of human and animal diseases across continents. However, records of Africa tabanids are fragmentary and mostly cursory. To improve identification, documentation and description of Tabanidae in East Africa, a baseline survey for the identification and description of Tabanidae in three eastern African countries was conducted. Tabanids from various locations in Uganda (Wakiso District), Tanzania (Tarangire National Park) and Kenya (Shimba Hills National Reserve, Muhaka, Nguruman) were collected. In Uganda, octenol baited F-traps were used to target tabanids, while NG2G traps baited with cow urine and acetone were employed in Kenya and Tanzania. The tabanids were identified using morphological and molecular methods. Morphologically, five genera (Ancala, Tabanus, Atylotus, Chrysops and Haematopota) and fourteen species of the Tabanidae were identified. Among the 14 species identified, six belonged to the genus Tabanus of which two (T. donaldsoni and T. guineensis) had not been described before in East Africa. The greatest diversity of tabanid species were collected from the Shimba Hills National Reserve, while collections from Uganda (around the shores of Lake Victoria) had the fewest number of species. However, the Ancala genus was found in Uganda, but not in Kenya or Tanzania. Maximum likelihood phylogenies of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase 1 (COI) genes sequenced in this study show definite concordance with morphological species identifications, except for Atylotus. This survey will be critical to building a complete checklist of Tabanidae prevalent in the region, expanding knowledge of these important vectors of human and animal diseases.

Relationship between Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense genetic diversity and clinical spectrum among sleeping sickness patients in Uganda.

OBJECTIVE: Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) due to Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense in East and southern Africa is reported to be clinically diverse. We tested the hypothesis that this clinical diversity is associated with a variation in trypanosome genotypes. RESULTS: Trypanosome DNA isolated from HAT patients was genotyped using 7 microsatellite markers directly from blood spotted FTA cards following a whole genome amplification. All markers were polymorphic and identified 17 multi-locus genotypes with 56% of the isolates having replicate genotypes. We did not observe any significant clustering between isolates and bootstrap values across major tree nodes were insignificant. When genotypes were compared among patients with varying clinical presentation or outcome, replicate genotypes were observed at both extremes showing no significant association between genetic diversity and clinical outcome. Our study shows that T. b. rhodesiense isolates are homogeneous within a focus and that observed clinical diversity may not be associated with parasite genetic diversity. Other factors like host genetics and environmental factors might be involved in determining clinical diversity. Our study may be important in designing appropriate control measures that target the parasite.

Cryptic Eimeria genotypes are common across the southern but not northern hemisphere.

The phylum Apicomplexa includes parasites of medical, zoonotic and veterinary significance. Understanding the global distribution and genetic diversity of these protozoa is of fundamental importance for efficient, robust and long-lasting methods of control. Eimeria spp. cause intestinal coccidiosis in all major livestock animals and are the most important parasites of domestic chickens in terms of both economic impact and animal welfare. Despite having significant negative impacts on the efficiency of food production, many fundamental questions relating to the global distribution and genetic variation of Eimeria spp. remain largely unanswered. Here, we provide the broadest map yet of Eimeria occurrence for domestic chickens, confirming that all the known species (Eimeria acervulina, Eimeria brunetti, Eimeria maxima, Eimeria mitis, Eimeria necatrix, Eimeria praecox, Eimeria tenella) are present in all six continents where chickens are found (including 21 countries). Analysis of 248 internal transcribed spacer sequences derived from 17 countries provided evidence of possible allopatric diversity for species such as E. tenella (FST values ⩽0.34) but not E. acervulina and E. mitis, and highlighted a trend towards widespread genetic variance. We found that three genetic variants described previously only in Australia and southern Africa (operational taxonomic units x, y and z) have a wide distribution across the southern, but not the northern hemisphere. While the drivers for such a polarised distribution of these operational taxonomic unit genotypes remains unclear, the occurrence of genetically variant Eimeria may pose a risk to food security and animal welfare in Europe and North America should these parasites spread to the northern hemisphere.

Population genetic structure and temporal stability among Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense isolates in Uganda.

BACKGROUND: The population structure and role of genetic exchange in African trypanosomes have been previously analyzed albeit with contradictory findings. To further investigate the role of genetic polymorphism on the population genetic structure of Trypanosoma b. rhodesiense, we hypothesized that parasite genotypes are clonal and stable over time. METHODS: We have undertaken a microsatellite marker analysis of T. b. rhodesiense isolates in a relatively new active HAT focus in Uganda (Kaberamaido-Dokolo-Amolatar) over a six-year period (2006-2012). We amplified six microsatellite markers by PCR directly from blood spotted FTA cards following whole genome amplification. RESULTS: The majority of loci demonstrated an excess of heterozygosity (Ho > He, F(IS) < 0). We identified 26 unique genotypes among the 57 isolates, accounting for 45.6% genotypic polymorphism. The presence of a high proportion of samples with repeated genotypes (54.4%, 31/57), disagreement with Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, and significant linkage disequilibrium between loci pairs, provide evidence that T. b. rhodesiense isolates from this focus are clonal. Our results show low values of F(ST)' (0-0.115) indicating negligible genetic differentiation across temporal isolates. Furthermore, predominant genotypes isolated in 2006 were still detectable in 2012. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings confirm the notion that endemicity is maintained by stable genotypes rather than an influx of new genotypes. Our results have considerable importance in understanding and tracking the spread of sleeping sickness with significant implication to disease control.

The role of cytokines in the pathogenesis and staging of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense sleeping sickness.

Human African trypanosomiasis due to Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense is invariably fatal if untreated with up to 12.3 million people at a risk of developing the disease in Sub-Saharan Africa. The disease is characterized by a wide spectrum of clinical presentation coupled with differences in disease progression and severity. While the factors determining this varied response have not been clearly characterized, inflammatory cytokines have been partially implicated as key players. In this review, we consolidate available literature on the role of specific cytokines in the pathogenesis of T. b. rhodesiense sleeping sickness and further discuss their potential as stage biomarkers. Such information would guide upcoming research on the immunology of sleeping sickness and further assist in the selection and evaluation of cytokines as disease stage or diagnostic biomarkers.

Interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-10 Are Up Regulated in Late Stage Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense Sleeping Sickness.

BACKGROUND: Sleeping sickness due to Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense has a wide spectrum of clinical presentations coupled with differences in disease progression and severity across East and Southern Africa. The disease progresses from an early (hemo-lymphatic) stage to the late (meningoencephalitic) stage characterized by presence of parasites in the central nervous system. We hypothesized that disease progression and severity of the neurological response is modulated by cytokines. METHODS: A total of 55 sleeping sickness cases and 41 healthy controls were recruited passively at Lwala hospital, in Northern Uganda. A panel of six cytokines (IFN-γ, IL1-ß, TNF-α, IL-6, TGF-ß and IL-10) were assayed from paired plasma and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples. Cytokine concentrations were analyzed in relation to disease progression, clinical presentation and severity of neurological responses. RESULTS: Median plasma levels (pg/ml) of IFN-γ (46.3), IL-6 (61.7), TGF-ß (8755) and IL-10 (256.6) were significantly higher in cases compared to controls (p< 0.0001). When early stage and late stage CSF cytokines were compared, IL-10 and IL-6 were up regulated in late stage patients and were associated with a reduction in tremors and cranioneuropathy. IL-10 had a higher staging accuracy with a sensitivity of 85.7% (95% CI, 63.7%-97%) and a specificity of 100% (95% CI, 39.8%-100%) while for IL-6, a specificity of 100% (95% CI, 47.8%-100%) gave a sensitivity of 83.3% (95% CI, 62.2%-95.3%). CONCLUSION: Our study demonstrates the role of host inflammatory cytokines in modulating the progression and severity of neurological responses in sleeping sickness. We demonstrate here an up-regulation of IL-6 and IL-10 during the late stage with a potential as adjunct stage biomarkers. Given that both cytokines could potentially be elevated by other CNS infections, our findings should be further validated in a large cohort of patients including those with other inflammatory diseases such as cerebral malaria.

Comparison of nucleic acid sequence-based amplification and loop-mediated isothermal amplification for diagnosis of human African trypanosomiasis.

Diagnosis of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) using molecular tests should ideally achieve high sensitivity without compromising specificity. This study compared 2 simplified tests, nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA) combined with oligochromatography (OC) and loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), executed on 181 blood samples from 65 Trypanosoma brucei gambiense HAT patients, 86 controls, and 30 serological suspects from Uganda. Basing on the composite reference standard, the diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of NASBA were 93.9% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 84.9-98.3%) and 100% (95% CI = 94.9-100%), respectively. The same parameters for LAMP were 76.9% (95% CI = 64.8-86.5%) and 100% (95% CI = 91.6-100%), respectively. The level of agreement between LAMP and microscopy was good with a kappa (κ) value of 79.2% (95% CI = 69.4-88.9%), while that of NASBA-OC/microscopy was very good (κ value 94.6%; 95% CI = 89.3-99.8%). The sensitivity of NASBA-OC was significantly higher than that of LAMP (Z = 2.723; P = 0.007). These tests have potential application to HAT surveillance.

Diagnostic accuracy of molecular amplification tests for human African trypanosomiasis--systematic review.

BACKGROUND: A range of molecular amplification techniques have been developed for the diagnosis of Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT); however, careful evaluation of these tests must precede implementation to ensure their high clinical accuracy. Here, we investigated the diagnostic accuracy of molecular amplification tests for HAT, the quality of articles and reasons for variation in accuracy. METHODOLOGY: Data from studies assessing diagnostic molecular amplification tests were extracted and pooled to calculate accuracy. Articles were included if they reported sensitivity and specificity or data whereby values could be calculated. Study quality was assessed using QUADAS and selected studies were analysed using the bivariate random effects model. RESULTS: 16 articles evaluating molecular amplification tests fulfilled the inclusion criteria: PCR (n = 12), NASBA (n = 2), LAMP (n = 1) and a study comparing PCR and NASBA (n = 1). Fourteen articles, including 19 different studies were included in the meta-analysis. Summary sensitivity for PCR on blood was 99.0% (95% CI 92.8 to 99.9) and the specificity was 97.7% (95% CI 93.0 to 99.3). Differences in study design and readout method did not significantly change estimates although use of satellite DNA as a target significantly lowers specificity. Sensitivity and specificity of PCR on CSF for staging varied from 87.6% to 100%, and 55.6% to 82.9% respectively. CONCLUSION: Here, PCR seems to have sufficient accuracy to replace microscopy where facilities allow, although this conclusion is based on multiple reference standards and a patient population that was not always representative. Future studies should, therefore, include patients for which PCR may become the test of choice and consider well designed diagnostic accuracy studies to provide extra evidence on the value of PCR in practice. Another use of PCR for control of disease could be to screen samples collected from rural areas and test in reference laboratories, to spot epidemics quickly and direct resources appropriately.

Phase II evaluation of sensitivity and specificity of PCR and NASBA followed by oligochromatography for diagnosis of human African trypanosomiasis in clinical samples from D.R. Congo and Uganda.

BACKGROUND: The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA) have been recently modified by coupling to oligochromatography (OC) for easy and fast visualisation of products. In this study we evaluate the sensitivity and specificity of the PCR-OC and NASBA-OC for diagnosis of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense human African trypanosomiasis (HAT). METHODOLOGY AND RESULTS: Both tests were evaluated in a case-control design on 143 HAT patients and 187 endemic controls from the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and Uganda. The overall sensitivity of PCR-OC was 81.8% and the specificity was 96.8%. The PCR-OC showed a sensitivity and specificity of 82.4% and 99.2% on the specimens from DRC and 81.3% and 92.3% on those from Uganda. NASBA-OC yielded an overall sensitivity of 90.2%, and a specificity of 98.9%. The sensitivity and specificity of NASBA-OC on the specimens from DRC was 97.1% and 99.2%, respectively. On the specimens from Uganda we observed a sensitivity of 84.0% and a specificity of 98.5%. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: The tests showed good sensitivity and specificity for the T. b. gambiense HAT in DRC but rather a low sensitivity for T. b. rhodesiense HAT in Uganda.

Accordance and concordance of PCR and NASBA followed by oligochromatography for the molecular diagnosis of Trypanosoma brucei and Leishmania.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the repeatability and reproducibility of four simplified molecular assays for the diagnosis of Trypanosoma brucei spp. or Leishmania ssp. in a multicentre ring trial with seven participating laboratories. METHODS: The tests are based on PCR or NASBA amplification of the parasites nucleic acids followed by rapid read-out by oligochromatographic dipstick (PCR-OC and NASBA-OC). RESULTS: On purified nucleic acid specimens, the repeatability and reproducibility of the tests were Tryp-PRC-OC, 91.7% and 95.5%; Tryp-NASBA-OC, 95.8% and 100%; Leish-PCR-OC, 95.9% and 98.1%; Leish-NASBA-OC, 92.3% and 98.2%. On blood specimens spiked with parasites, the repeatability and reproducibility of the tests were Tryp-PRC-OC, 78.4% and 86.6%; Tryp-NASBA-OC, 81.5% and 89.0%; Leish-PCR-OC, 87.1% and 91.7%; Leish-NASBA-OC, 74.8% and 86.2%. CONCLUSION: As repeatability and reproducibility of the tests were satisfactory, further phase II and III evaluations in clinical and population specimens from disease endemic countries are justified.

Simplified molecular detection of Leishmania parasites in various clinical samples from patients with leishmaniasis.

BACKGROUND: Molecular methods to detect Leishmania parasites are considered specific and sensitive, but often not applied in endemic areas of developing countries due to technical complexity. In the present study isothermal, nucleic acid sequence based amplification (NASBA) was coupled to oligochromatography (OC) to develop a simplified detection method for the diagnosis of leishmaniasis. NASBA-OC, detecting Leishmania RNA, was evaluated using clinical samples from visceral leishmaniasis patients from East Africa (n = 30) and cutaneous leishmaniasis from South America (n = 70) and appropriate control samples. RESULTS: Analytical sensitivity was 10 parasites/ml of spiked blood, and 1 parasite/ml of culture. Diagnostic sensitivity of NASBA-OC was 93.3% (95% CI: 76.5%-98.8%) and specificity was 100% (95% CI: 91.1%-100%) on blood samples, while sensitivity and specificity on skin biopsy samples was 98.6% (95% CI: 91.2%-99.9%) and 100% (95% CI: 46.3%-100%), respectively. CONCLUSION: The NASBA-OC format brings implementation of molecular diagnosis of leishmaniasis in resource poor countries one step closer.

Nucleic acid sequence-based amplification with oligochromatography for detection of Trypanosoma brucei in clinical samples.

Molecular tools, such as real-time nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA) and PCR, have been developed to detect Trypanosoma brucei parasites in blood for the diagnosis of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT). Despite good sensitivity, these techniques are not implemented in HAT control programs due to the high cost of the equipment, which is unaffordable for laboratories in developing countries where HAT is endemic. In this study, a simplified technique, oligochromatography (OC), was developed for the detection of amplification products of T. brucei 18S rRNA by NASBA. The T. brucei NASBA-OC test has analytical sensitivities of 1 to 10 parasites/ml on nucleic acids extracted from parasite culture and 10 parasites/ml on spiked blood. The test showed no reaction with nontarget pathogens or with blood from healthy controls. Compared to the composite standard applied in the present study, i.e., parasitological confirmation of a HAT case by direct microscopy or by microscopy after concentration of parasites using either a microhematocrit centrifugation technique or a mini-anion-exchange centrifugation technique, NASBA-OC on blood samples had a sensitivity of 73.0% (95% confidence interval, 60 to 83%), while standard expert microscopy had a sensitivity of 57.1% (95% confidence interval, 44 to 69%). On cerebrospinal fluid samples, NASBA-OC had a sensitivity of 88.2% (95% confidence interval, 75 to 95%) and standard microscopy had a sensitivity of 86.2% (95% confidence interval, 64 to 88%). The T. brucei NASBA-OC test developed in this study can be employed in field laboratories, because it does not require a thermocycler; a simple heat block or a water bath maintained at two different temperatures is sufficient for amplification.

Detection of Trypanosoma brucei parasites in blood samples using real-time nucleic acid sequence-based amplification.

Currently, the conventional diagnosis of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) is by microscopic demonstration of trypomastigotes in blood, lymph, and/or cerebrospinal fluid. However, microscopic diagnosis of HAT is not sensitive enough and may give false-negative results, thus, denying the patient the necessary treatment of the otherwise fatal disease. For this reason, a highly sensitive technique needs to be developed to enhance case findings. In this study, the real-time nucleic acid sequence-based amplification assay described is based on amplification and concurrent detection of small subunit rRNA (18S rRNA) of Trypanosoma brucei. The sensitivity of the assay was evaluated on nucleic acid from in vitro cultured parasites and blood spiked with various parasites quantities. The assay detected 10 parasites/mL using cultured parasites as well as spiked blood. A sensitive assay such as the one developed in this study may become an alternative tool to confirm diagnosis of human African trypanosomiasis.