Ion chamber absorbed dose calibration coefficients, N(D,w), measured at ADCLs: distribution analysis and stability.

PURPOSE: To analyze absorbed dose calibration coefficients, ND,w, measured at accredited dosimetry calibration laboratories (ADCLs) for client ionization chambers to study (i) variability among ND,w coefficients for chambers of the same type calibrated at each ADCL to investigate ion chamber volume fluctuations and chamber manufacturing tolerances; (ii) equivalency of ion chamber calibration coefficients measured at different ADCLs by intercomparing ND,w coefficients for chambers of the same type; and (iii) the long-term stability of ND,w coefficients for different chamber types by investigating repeated chamber calibrations. METHODS: Large samples of ND,w coefficients for several chamber types measured over the time period between 1998 and 2014 were obtained from the three ADCLs operating in the United States. These are analyzed using various graphical and numerical statistical tests for the four chamber types with the largest samples of calibration coefficients to investigate (i) and (ii) above. Ratios of calibration coefficients for the same chamber, typically obtained two years apart, are calculated to investigate (iii) above and chambers with standard deviations of old/new ratios less than 0.3% meet stability requirements for accurate reference dosimetry recommended in dosimetry protocols. RESULTS: It is found that ND,w coefficients for a given chamber type compared among different ADCLs may arise from differing probability distributions potentially due to slight differences in calibration procedures and/or the transfer of the primary standard. However, average ND,w coefficients from different ADCLs for given chamber types are very close with percent differences generally less than 0.2% for Farmer-type chambers and are well within reported uncertainties. CONCLUSIONS: The close agreement among calibrations performed at different ADCLs reaffirms the Calibration Laboratory Accreditation Subcommittee process of ensuring ADCL conformance with National Institute of Standards and Technology standards. This study shows that ND,w coefficients measured at different ADCLs are statistically equivalent, especially considering reasonable uncertainties. This analysis of ND,w coefficients also allows identification of chamber types that can be considered stable enough for accurate reference dosimetry.

Monte Carlo calculations of electron beam quality conversion factors for several ion chamber types.

PURPOSE: To provide a comprehensive investigation of electron beam reference dosimetry using Monte Carlo simulations of the response of 10 plane-parallel and 18 cylindrical ion chamber types. Specific emphasis is placed on the determination of the optimal shift of the chambers' effective point of measurement (EPOM) and beam quality conversion factors. METHODS: The EGSnrc system is used for calculations of the absorbed dose to gas in ion chamber models and the absorbed dose to water as a function of depth in a water phantom on which cobalt-60 and several electron beam source models are incident. The optimal EPOM shifts of the ion chambers are determined by comparing calculations of R50 converted from I50 (calculated using ion chamber simulations in phantom) to R50 calculated using simulations of the absorbed dose to water vs depth in water. Beam quality conversion factors are determined as the calculated ratio of the absorbed dose to water to the absorbed dose to air in the ion chamber at the reference depth in a cobalt-60 beam to that in electron beams. RESULTS: For most plane-parallel chambers, the optimal EPOM shift is inside of the active cavity but different from the shift determined with water-equivalent scaling of the front window of the chamber. These optimal shifts for plane-parallel chambers also reduce the scatter of beam quality conversion factors, kQ, as a function of R50. The optimal shift of cylindrical chambers is found to be less than the 0.5 rcav recommended by current dosimetry protocols. In most cases, the values of the optimal shift are close to 0.3 rcav. Values of kecal are calculated and compared to those from the TG-51 protocol and differences are explained using accurate individual correction factors for a subset of ion chambers investigated. High-precision fits to beam quality conversion factors normalized to unity in a beam with R50 = 7.5 cm (kQ (')) are provided. These factors avoid the use of gradient correction factors as used in the TG-51 protocol although a chamber dependent optimal shift in the EPOM is required when using plane-parallel chambers while no shift is needed with cylindrical chambers. The sensitivity of these results to parameters used to model the ion chambers is discussed and the uncertainty related to the practical use of these results is evaluated. CONCLUSIONS: These results will prove useful as electron beam reference dosimetry protocols are being updated. The analysis of this work indicates that cylindrical ion chambers may be appropriate for use in low-energy electron beams but measurements are required to characterize their use in these beams.

Determination of relative ion chamber calibration coefficients from depth-ionization measurements in clinical electron beams.

A method is presented to obtain ion chamber calibration coefficients relative to secondary standard reference chambers in electron beams using depth-ionization measurements. Results are obtained as a function of depth and average electron energy at depth in 4, 8, 12 and 18 MeV electron beams from the NRC Elekta Precise linac. The PTW Roos, Scanditronix NACP-02, PTW Advanced Markus and NE 2571 ion chambers are investigated. The challenges and limitations of the method are discussed. The proposed method produces useful data at shallow depths. At depths past the reference depth, small shifts in positioning or drifts in the incident beam energy affect the results, thereby providing a built-in test of incident electron energy drifts and/or chamber set-up. Polarity corrections for ion chambers as a function of average electron energy at depth agree with literature data. The proposed method produces results consistent with those obtained using the conventional calibration procedure while gaining much more information about the behavior of the ion chamber with similar data acquisition time. Measurement uncertainties in calibration coefficients obtained with this method are estimated to be less than 0.5%. These results open up the possibility of using depth-ionization measurements to yield chamber ratios which may be suitable for primary standards-level dissemination.

Monte Carlo calculations for reference dosimetry of electron beams with the PTW Roos and NE2571 ion chambers.

PURPOSE: To investigate recommendations for reference dosimetry of electron beams and gradient effects for the NE2571 chamber and to provide beam quality conversion factors using Monte Carlo simulations of the PTW Roos and NE2571 ion chambers. METHODS: The EGSnrc code system is used to calculate the absorbed dose-to-water and the dose to the gas in fully modeled ion chambers as a function of depth in water. Electron beams are modeled using realistic accelerator simulations as well as beams modeled as collimated point sources from realistic electron beam spectra or monoenergetic electrons. Beam quality conversion factors are calculated with ratios of the doses to water and to the air in the ion chamber in electron beams and a cobalt-60 reference field. The overall ion chamber correction factor is studied using calculations of water-to-air stopping power ratios. RESULTS: The use of an effective point of measurement shift of 1.55 mm from the front face of the PTW Roos chamber, which places the point of measurement inside the chamber cavity, minimizes the difference between R50, the beam quality specifier, calculated from chamber simulations compared to that obtained using depth-dose calculations in water. A similar shift minimizes the variation of the overall ion chamber correction factor with depth to the practical range and reduces the root-mean-square deviation of a fit to calculated beam quality conversion factors at the reference depth as a function of R50. Similarly, an upstream shift of 0.34 rcav allows a more accurate determination of R50 from NE2571 chamber calculations and reduces the variation of the overall ion chamber correction factor with depth. The determination of the gradient correction using a shift of 0.22 rcav optimizes the root-mean-square deviation of a fit to calculated beam quality conversion factors if all beams investigated are considered. However, if only clinical beams are considered, a good fit to results for beam quality conversion factors is obtained without explicitly correcting for gradient effects. The inadequacy of R50 to uniquely specify beam quality for the accurate selection of kQ factors is discussed. Systematic uncertainties in beam quality conversion factors are analyzed for the NE2571 chamber and amount to between 0.4% and 1.2% depending on assumptions used. CONCLUSIONS: The calculated beam quality conversion factors for the PTW Roos chamber obtained here are in good agreement with literature data. These results characterize the use of an NE2571 ion chamber for reference dosimetry of electron beams even in low-energy beams.

Beam quality conversion factors for parallel-plate ionization chambers in MV photon beams.

PURPOSE: To investigate the behavior of plane-parallel ion chambers in high-energy photon beams through measurements and Monte Carlo simulations. METHODS: Ten plane-parallel ion chamber types were obtained from the major ion chamber manufacturers. Absorbed dose-to-water calibration coefficients are measured for these chambers and k(Q) factors are determined. In the process, the behaviors of the chambers are characterized through measurements of leakage currents, chamber settling in cobalt-60, polarity and ion recombination behavior, and long-term stability. Monte Carlo calculations of the absorbed dose to the air in the ion chamber and absorbed dose to water are obtained to calculate k(Q) factors. Systematic uncertainties in Monte Carlo calculated k(Q) factors are investigated by varying material properties and chamber dimensions. RESULTS: Chamber behavior was variable in MV photon beams, especially with regard to chamber leakage and ion recombination. The plane-parallel chambers did not perform as well as cylindrical chambers. Significant differences up to 1.5% were observed in calibration coefficients after a period of eight months although k(Q) factors were consistent on average within 0.17%. Chamber-to-chamber variations in k(Q) factors for chambers of the same type were at the 0.2% level. Systematic uncertainties in Monte Carlo calculated k(Q) factors ranged between 0.34% and 0.50% depending on the chamber type. Average percent differences between measured and calculated k(Q) factors were - 0.02%, 0.18%, and - 0.16% for 6, 10, and 25 MV beams, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Excellent agreement is observed on average at the 0.2% level between measured and Monte Carlo calculated k(Q) factors. Measurements indicate that the behavior of these chambers is not adequate for their use for reference dosimetry of high-energy photon beams without a more extensive QA program than currently used for cylindrical reference-class ion chambers.

Measured and Monte Carlo calculated K(Q) factors: accuracy and comparison.

PURPOSE: The journal Medical Physics recently published two papers that determine beam quality conversion factors, k(Q), for large sets of ion chambers. In the first paper [McEwen Med. Phys. 37, 2179-2193 (2010)], k(Q) was determined experimentally, while the second paper [Muir and Rogers Med. Phys. 37, 5939-5950 (2010)] provides k(Q) factors calculated using Monte Carlo simulations. This work investigates a variety of additional consistency checks to verify the accuracy of the k(Q) factors determined in each publication and a comparison of the two data sets. Uncertainty introduced in calculated k(Q) factors by possible variation of W/e with beam energy is investigated further. METHODS: The validity of the experimental set of k(Q) factors relies on the accuracy of the NE2571 reference chamber measurements to which k(Q) factors for all other ion chambers are correlated. The stability of NE2571 absorbed dose to water calibration coefficients is determined and comparison to other experimental k(Q) factors is analyzed. Reliability of Monte Carlo calculated k(Q) factors is assessed through comparison to other publications that provide Monte Carlo calculations of k(Q) as well as an analysis of the sleeve effect, the effect of cavity length and self-consistencies between graphite-walled Farmer-chambers. Comparison between the two data sets is given in terms of the percent difference between the k(Q) factors presented in both publications. RESULTS: Monitoring of the absorbed dose calibration coefficients for the NE2571 chambers over a period of more than 15 yrs exhibit consistency at a level better than 0.1%. Agreement of the NE2571 k(Q) factors with a quadratic fit to all other experimental data from standards labs for the same chamber is observed within 0.3%. Monte Carlo calculated k(Q) factors are in good agreement with most other Monte Carlo calculated k(Q) factors. Expected results are observed for the sleeve effect and the effect of cavity length on k(Q). The mean percent differences between experimental and Monte Carlo calculated k(Q) factors are -0.08, -0.07, and -0.23% for the Elekta 6, 10, and 25 MV nominal beam energies, respectively. An upper limit on the variation of W/e in photon beams from cobalt-60 to 25 MV is determined as 0.4% with 95% confidence. The combined uncertainty on Monte Carlo calculated k(Q) factors is reassessed and amounts to between 0.40 and 0.49% depending on the wall material of the chamber. CONCLUSIONS: Excellent agreement (mean percent difference of only 0.13% for the entire data set) between experimental and calculated k(Q) factors is observed. For some chambers, k(Q) is measured for only one chamber of each type--the level of agreement observed in this study would suggest that for those chambers the measured k(Q) values are generally representative of the chamber type.

The central electrode correction factor for high-Z electrodes in small ionization chambers.

PURPOSE: Recent Monte Carlo calculations of beam quality conversion factors for ion chambers that use high-Z electrodes [B. R. Muir and D. W. O. Rogers, Med. Phys. 37, 5939-5950 (2010)] have shown large deviations of kQ values from values calculated using the same techniques as the TG-51 and TRS-398 protocols. This report investigates the central electrode correction factor, Pcel, for these chambers. METHODS: Ionization chambers are modeled and Pcel is calculated using the EGSnrc user code egs_chamber for three cases: in photon and electron beams under reference conditions; as a function of distance from an iridium-192 point source in a water phantom; and as a function of depth in a water phantom on which a 200 kVp x-ray source or 6 MV beam is incident. RESULTS: In photon beams, differences of up to 3% between Pcel calculations for a chamber with a high-Z electrode and those used by TG-51 for a 1 mm diameter aluminum electrode are observed. The central electrode correction factor for a given value of the beam quality specifier is different depending on the amount of filtration of the photon beam. However, in an unfiltered 6 MV beam, Pcel, varies by only 0.3% for a chamber with a high-Z electrode as the depth is varied from 1 to 20 cm in water. The difference between Pcel calculations for chambers with high-Z electrodes and TG-51 values for a chamber with an aluminum electrode is up to 0.45% in electron beams. The central electrode correction, which is roughly proportional to the chambers absorbed dose sensitivity, is found to be large and variable as a function of distance for chambers with high-Z and aluminum electrodes in low-energy photon fields. CONCLUSIONS: In this work, ionization chambers that employ high-Z electrodes have been shown to be problematic in various situations. For beam quality conversion factors, the ratio of Pcel in a beam quality Q to that in a Co-60 beam is required; for some chambers, kQ is significantly different from current dosimetry protocol values because of central electrode effects. It would be best for manufacturers to avoid producing ion chambers that use high-Z electrodes.

Monte Carlo calculations of kQ, the beam quality conversion factor.

PURPOSE: To use EGSnrc Monte Carlo simulations to directly calculate beam quality conversion factors, kQ, for 32 cylindrical ionization chambers over a range of beam qualities and to quantify the effect of systematic uncertainties on Monte Carlo calculations of kQ. These factors are required to use the TG-51 or TRS-398 clinical dosimetry protocols for calibrating external radiotherapy beams. METHODS: Ionization chambers are modeled either from blueprints or manufacturers' user's manuals. The dose-to-air in the chamber is calculated using the EGSnrc user-code egs_chamber using 11 different tabulated clinical photon spectra for the incident beams. The dose to a small volume of water is also calculated in the absence of the chamber at the midpoint of the chamber on its central axis. Using a simple equation, kQ is calculated from these quantities under the assumption that W/e is constant with energy and compared to TG-51 protocol and measured values. RESULTS: Polynomial fits to the Monte Carlo calculated kQ factors as a function of beam quality expressed as %dd(10)x and TPR10(20) are given for each ionization chamber. Differences are explained between Monte Carlo calculated values and values from the TG-51 protocol or calculated using the computer program used for TG-51 calculations. Systematic uncertainties in calculated kQ values are analyzed and amount to a maximum of one standard deviation uncertainty of 0.99% if one assumes that photon cross-section uncertainties are uncorrelated and 0.63% if they are assumed correlated. The largest components of the uncertainty are the constancy of W/e and the uncertainty in the cross-section for photons in water. CONCLUSIONS: It is now possible to calculate kQ directly using Monte Carlo simulations. Monte Carlo calculations for most ionization chambers give results which are comparable to TG-51 values. Discrepancies can be explained using individual Monte Carlo calculations of various correction factors which are more accurate than previously used values. For small ionization chambers with central electrodes composed of high-Z materials, the effect of the central electrode is much larger than that for the aluminum electrodes in Farmer chambers.