Differences between two populations of bollworm, Helicoverpa zea (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), with variable measurements of laboratory susceptibilities to Bt toxins exposed to non-Bt and Bt cottons in large field cages.

Interpreting variable laboratory measurements of Helicoverpa zea Boddie susceptibility to toxins from Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt) has been challenging due to a lack of clear evidence to document declining field control. Research that links laboratory measurements of susceptibility to survival on Bt crops is vital for accurate characterization and any subsequent response to the occurrence of an implied H. zea resistance event. In this study, H. zea survival and the resultant damage to plant fruiting structures of non-Bt, Bollgard II, and Bollgard III cottons from two insect colonies with differing levels of laboratory susceptibility to Bt toxins were evaluated in large field cages. Laboratory bioassays revealed resistance ratios of 2.04 and 622.14 between the two H. zea colonies for Dipel DF and Cry1Ac, respectively. Differences between the two H. zea colonies measured via bioassays with Bollgard II and Bollgard III cotton leaf tissue in the laboratory were not statistically discernable. However, there was 17.6% and 5.3% lower larval mortality in Bollgard II and Bollgard III for the feral relative to the laboratory colony of H. zea, respectively. Although H. zea larval numbers in cages infested with the laboratory susceptible colony did not differ between the two Bt cottons, there were fewer larvae per 25 plants in Bollgard III than in Bollgard II cotton in cages containing tolerant insects. Cages infested with tolerant H. zea moths had higher numbers of total larvae than those containing the laboratory susceptible colony in both Bollgard II and Bollgard III cottons. Bollgard II and Bollgard III cottons received 77.4% and 82.7% more total damage to total plant fruiting structures in cages infested with tolerant insects relative to those containing the laboratory susceptible colony. The damage inflicted to fruiting structures on Bollgard III cotton by a feral H. zea colony with decreased measurements of laboratory susceptibility to Dipel DF and Cry1Ac indicate that the addition of Vip3A to third generation Bt cottons may not provide sufficient control in situations where infestations levels are high.

Shear-wave elastography contributes to accurate tumour size estimation when assessing small breast cancers.

AIM: To assess whether the size of peritumoural stiffness (PTS) on shear-wave elastography (SWE) for small primary breast cancers (≤15 mm) was associated with size discrepancies between grey-scale ultrasound (GSUS) and final histological size and whether the addition of PTS size to GSUS size might result in more accurate tumour size estimation when compared to final histological size. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A retrospective analysis of 86 consecutive patients between August 2011 and February 2013 who underwent breast-conserving surgery for tumours of size ≤15 mm at ultrasound was carried out. The size of PTS stiffness was compared to mean GSUS size, mean histological size, and the extent of size discrepancy between GSUS and histology. PTS size and GSUS were combined and compared to the final histological size. RESULTS: PTS of >3 mm was associated with a larger mean final histological size (16 versus 11.3 mm, p < 0.001). PTS size of >3 mm was associated with a higher frequency of underestimation of final histological size by GSUS of >5 mm (63% versus 18%, p < 0.001). The combination of PTS and GSUS size led to accurate estimation of the final histological size (p = 0.03). The size of PTS was not associated with margin involvement (p = 0.27). CONCLUSION: PTS extending beyond 3 mm from the grey-scale abnormality is significantly associated with underestimation of tumour size of >5 mm for small invasive breast cancers. Taking into account the size of PTS also led to accurate estimation of the final histological size. Further studies are required to assess the relationship of the extent of SWE stiffness and margin status.

Can additional histopathological examination of ultrasound-guided axillary lymph node core biopsies improve preoperative diagnosis of primary breast cancer nodal metastasis?

AIM: To assess whether an additional histopathological examination of ultrasound-guided core biopsy (USCB)/fine-needle aspiration (FNA) of abnormal axillary lymph nodes (ALN) can improve the preoperative diagnosis of axillary nodal metastasis. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Women with suspected invasive breast cancer and abnormal axillary ultrasound (AUS), but negative USCB on standard histopathological assessment were included. From the core biopsies six additional levels were sectioned for haematoxylin and eosin examination, and two levels were sectioned for immunohistochemistry with AE1/3. The presence of metastatic disease was noted. RESULTS: The USCB of 102 patients were submitted for additional histopathological examination, of whom 58 had screen-detected lesions and 44 had symptomatic lesions. Eighty underwent axillary surgery for invasive carcinoma (n = 74) or for ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) requiring mastectomy (n = 6). Twelve patients were found to have nodal disease with a mean of two nodes involved. The additional histopathological assessment of the nodal USCBs revealed tumour not seen at the standard examination in only three cases, which consisted of isolated tumour cells (n = 2) and micrometastasis (n = 1). All three patients underwent subsequent axillary node clearance; however, no upgrade of axillary disease was found at final histopathology. CONCLUSION: Additional histopathological examination of USCBs of radiologically abnormal ALN does not improve the preoperative diagnosis of axillary nodal metastasis in primary breast cancer and may lead to unnecessary axillary clearance.

Involved anterior margins after breast conserving surgery: is re-excision required?

BACKGROUND: Complete tumour excision in breast conserving surgery (BCS) is critical for successful outcome; involved circumferential resection margins are associated with increased disease recurrence. However, the importance of an involved anterior margin (IAM) is less clear. The purpose of this study was to review an aggressive approach to IAM and hence assess whether anterior margin re-excision (RE) yields clinical benefit. METHODS: A review of prospectively collected clinical and pathology data was performed for all patients who underwent BCS between 2006 and 2010 through a single cancer centre. An involved margin was defined as < 1 mm clearance of invasive or in-situ breast cancer. RESULTS: 1667 patients underwent BCS for invasive and/or in-situ disease, of whom 114 underwent RE. A total of 170 involved margins were identified: most commonly the anterior (52 margins) followed by the posterior (39 margins) and inferior (31 margins) margin. Patients with IAM were more likely to have grade 3 invasive disease (p = 0.0323) but less likely to have residual disease found at re-excision (2/49 vs. 32/101 margins, p = 0.0033); there were no differences when in-situ characteristics were compared. CONCLUSIONS: RE of IAM after BCS rarely yields further disease; multi-disciplinary teams should consider whether further therapy for an IAM is required on a patient by patient basis.

Gastric Schwannoma or GIST: accuracy of preoperative diagnosis?

Mesenchymal cell tumours of the gastrointestinal tract are rare in western society. Gastrointestinal stromal tumour (GIST) is the most common of this group of tumours. Gastric schwannoma is rarer, accounting for only 0.2% of all gastric tumours and 4% of all benign gastric neoplasms. Indeed, schwannoma has only been recognized as a primary gastrointestinal tumour in the last 20 years through advances in pathological techniques. We report a rare case of gastric schwannoma, the endoscopic and radiological features of which were indistinguishable from a GIST. Due to the diagnostic uncertainty, surgical resection is the treatment of choice. Development of more reliable diagnostic methods, such as endoscopic core biopsy, may help the accuracy of preoperative diagnosis.

Outcome of right- and left-sided colonic and rectal cancer following surgical resection.

AIM: To determine the outcome of surgery for colorectal cancer from a single region and to see whether location of the primary cancer influences prognosis. METHOD: Patients with colorectal cancer diagnosed from January 2002 to December 2006, entered into a prospective database were followed until death or to December 2008. Right-sided (caecum to transverse colon) and left-sided (splenic flexure to rectosigmoid junction) colonic cancers and rectal cancers (distal to rectosigmoid junction to the anus) were identified. Statistical analysis was performed using Pearson's chi-square test, Kaplan-Meier (log-rank statistic) and Cox regression analysis with a P-value < 0.05 denoting significance. RESULTS: Of 841 patients with solitary colorectal cancers identified (median age 72 [30-101] years; 53% male), 283 (33.7%) were right-sided colonic, 330 (39.2%) were left-sided colonic and 228 (27.1%) were rectal. Respective resection rates were 82.7%, 77.9% and 91.6%, and curative resection rates were 79.9%, 82.9.0% and 85.7%, respectively. There was no significant difference in recurrence rates between right- (16.1%), left-sided (23.0%) colonic and rectal (20.7%) cancers (P = 0.207). Respective mean survival rates were 54.4, 59.8 and 63.6 months (P = 0.007). CONCLUSION: Right-sided colorectal cancers had a worse prognosis than left-sided and rectal cancers, possibly because of more advanced staging and fewer curative resections.

MR imaging of fistula in ano: indications and contribution to surgical assessment.

BACKGROUND: Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is the imaging modality of choice for fistula in ano. The purpose of this study was to analyse the use of MRI, and to assess its contribution towards the assessment of this sometimes difficult condition. METHODS: A retrospective analysis of all patients with fistula in ano between January 2003 and December 2007 was performed, focussing on those who had MRI assessment. The primary pathology, indication for MRI and the contribution of this investigation to assessment of fistula in ano were analysed. RESULTS: MRI was performed in 40 patients. The primary pathologies included: perianal sepsis in 20 (50%), Crohn's disease in 11 (27.5%), primary fistula in ano in 6 (15%) and others in 3 (7.5%) patients. Indications for MRI were to assess the fistula anatomy in 17 (42.5%), to assess a clinically suspected fistula in 12 (30%), to assess a complex fistula found at Examination Under Anaesthesia (EUA) in 6 (15%) and to exclude a fistula in 5 (12.5%). MRI was considered helpful in 34 (85%) of all cases. MRI established the fistula anatomy and guided further surgery in 47.1%, correlated with EUA findings in 38.2% and excluded a suspected fistula in 14.7% of these. CONCLUSIONS: This study further supports the benefit of using MRI to assess fistula in ano. When used in selected patients, it was of benefit in 85% of cases, by establishing fistula anatomy and guiding further surgery, correlating EUA findings or excluding a clinically suspected fistula.

Association of soil chemical and physical properties with Pythium species diversity, community composition, and disease incidence.

A high-throughput baiting and identification process identified more than 7,000 isolates of Pythium from 88 locations in Ohio. Isolates were identified using direct-colony polymerase chain reaction followed by single-strand conformational polymorphism, and communities were assembled using the Jaccard similarity coefficient and cluster analysis. Both univariate and multivariate statistics were used to evaluate differences in soil properties between communities, and canonical discriminant analysis (CDA) was used to assess the strength of the association of soil variables within communities from 83 of the locations. In all, 21 species of Pythium were identified but only 6 were recovered from >40% of the locations. Five communities were formed using the cluster analysis, and significant differences were observed in disease incidence, as well as soil pH, calcium, magnesium, and cation exchange capacity between communities. Stepwise multiple discriminant analysis and CDA identified pH, calcium, magnesium, and field capacity as contributing the most to the separation of the five Pythium communities. There was a strong association between abiotic soil components and the structure of Pythium communities, as well as diversity of Pythium spp. collected from agronomic production fields in Ohio.

Personality disorder and competence to refuse treatment.

The traditional view that having a personality disorder, unlike other mental disorders, is not usually reason enough to consider a person incompetent to make healthcare decisions is challenged. The example of a case in which a woman was treated for a physical disorder without her consent illustrates that personality disorder can render a person incompetent to refuse essential treatment, particularly because it can affect the doctor-patient relationship within which consent is given.

Perception of effort at low and moderate intensity exercise in survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia.

OBJECTIVE: The study examined the degree to which male and female survivors of acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) perceive effort at low and moderate intensity exercise in association with related physiological variables. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Participants were 67 children. Thirty-five (14 boys and 21 girls) were long-time survivors of ALL and 32 (18 boys and 14 girls) were control subjects. The Children's Effort Rating Table (CERT) was used to measure whole-body perceived exertion at low and moderate intensity exercise. Peak oxygen uptake was measured using a motorized treadmill. CERT and physiological data were analysed using 2 x 2 mixed analyses of variance, appropriate t-tests and coefficients of correlation. RESULTS: In absolute terms, boys treated for ALL found perception of effort to be more strenuous at both low (3.9 vs. 3.5 units) and moderate (6.1 vs. 5.3 units) intensity exercise than control subjects, although differences were not significant (p > 0.05); girls treated for ALL found perception of effort to be the same as controls at low intensity exercise (3.1 vs. 3.1 units) but slightly higher than controls at moderate intensity exercise (5.6 vs. 5.2 units); neither of these differences were significant (p > 0.05). When CERT values were adjusted for (.-)VO(2) peak (%) and heart rate (HR) peak (%) differences remained non-significant. There were no significant interactions (Intensity x Group) in males, but the interaction for (.-)VO(2) peak (%) was significant in females (p < 0.05). The main effect for Intensity (low and moderate) was significant for all variables in boys and girls (p < 0.0001). The main effect for Group (ALL and controls) identified significantly greater absolute (b.p.m.) and relative (%) HR values in ALL boys at low and moderate intensity exercise. In female ALL and control subjects the interaction (Intensity x Group) distinguished between (.-)VO(2) peak (%) at moderate intensity exercise and HR peak (%) at low and moderate intensity exercise. Coefficients of correlation between perceived effort and (.-)VO(2) peak (%) in boys and girls were low to high (0.28-0.76), and between absolute and relative HR were also low to high (0.33-0.73). There were low correlations between time 'off therapy' and perceived effort, (.-)VO(2) peak (%) and HR peak (%) (-0.003 to -0.49). CONCLUSION: It was concluded that perception of effort in survivors of ALL at low and moderate intensity exercise was the same as that of control subjects. Correlations between perceived effort and physiological variables at moderate exercise were low to high, while those between perceived effort and time from treatment were generally weak.

Somatic characteristics and cardiovascular risk factors in growth hormone deficiency: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the effect of treatment with recombinant human growth hormone.

The purpose of the present study was to identify the effect of treatment with recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH) on seven somatic characteristics and eight clinical cardiovascular risk factors. Twenty-seven male and 24 female patients between the ages of 21 and 60 years were examined. The investigation was a double-blind, placebo-controlled study of 12 months duration. Patients were assigned randomly to treatment (T) and placebo (P) groups. In the first 6 months group T received rhGH and group P placebo. In the second 6 months both groups received rhGH. Complete data were available for 23 males and 20 females. Increments were calculated between 6 months -BL (increment 1) and 12-6 months (increment 2) in both T and P groups. Apart from the somatotype, data were analysed with a 2 x 2 mixed analysis of variance (ANOVA) using treatment (rhGH and placebo) and time (increments 1 and 2). Somatotype data were analysed using a 2 x 3 multivariate ANOVA. Three significant interactions were identified in males: waist circumference (P = 0.006), trunk fat (P = 0.0001), and conicity index (P = 0.001). The only significant interaction in females was trunk fat (P = 0.006). In general, treatment and placebo groups responded differently by time and treatment. Responses were similar in males and females. In the first 6 months when group P was on placebo, waist circumference, trunk fat, and conicity index increased slightly; with group T on rhGH somatic variables declined markedly. In the second 6 months when both groups received rhGH there was a marked decline in group P and a continued decline (but less steeply) in group T. In males there were significant decreases in endomorphy in group T and increases in mesomorphy in group P. In females the somatotype remained stable. There were no significant interactions in clinical cardiovascular risk factors in either males or females. Favourable responses occurred in male and female lipid profiles, although these were not significant. It was concluded that in males waist circumference, trunk fat, conicity index, and somatotype responded significantly to treatment with rhGH; in females the only significant response was trunk fat.

Metabolic engineering of Saccharomyces cerevisiae for production of novel lipid compounds.

The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been modified successfully for production of numerous metabolites and therapeutic proteins through metabolic engineering, but has not been utilized to date for the production of lipid-derived compounds. We developed a lipid metabolic engineering strategy in S. cerevisiae based upon culturing techniques that are typically employed for studies of peroxisomal biogenesis; cells were grown in media containing fatty acids as a sole carbon source, which promotes peroxisomal proliferation and induction of enzymes associated with fatty acid beta-oxidation. Our results indicate that growth of yeast on fatty acids such as oleate results in extensive uptake of these fatty acids from the media and a subsequent increase in total cellular lipid content from 2% to 15% dry cell weight. We also show that co-expression of plant fatty acid desaturases 2 and 3 ( FAD2 and FAD3), using a fatty acid-inducible peroxisomal gene promoter, coupled the processes of fatty acid uptake with the induction of a new metabolic pathway leading from oleic acid (18:1) to linolenic acid (18:3). Finally, we show that cultivation of yeast cells in the presence of triacylglycerols and exogenously supplied lipase promotes extensive incorporation of triglyceride fatty acids into yeast cells. Collectively, these results provide a framework for bioconversion of low-cost oils into value-added lipid products.

Stable and transient expression of chimeric peroxisomal membrane proteins induces an independent "zippering" of peroxisomes and an endoplasmic reticulum subdomain.

Peroxisomal ascorbate peroxidase (APX) (EC 1.11.1.11) was shown recently to sort through a subdomain of the ER (peroxisomal endoplasmic reticulum; pER), and in certain cases, alter the distribution and/or morphology of peroxisomes and pER when overexpressed transiently in Nicotiana tabacum L. cv. Bright Yellow 2 (BY-2) cells. Our goal was to gain insight into the dynamics of peroxisomal membrane protein sorting by characterizing the structure and formation of reorganized peroxisomes and pER. Specifically, we test directly the hypothesis that the observed phenomenon is due to the oligomerization of cytosol-facing, membrane-bound polypeptides. a process referred to as membrane "zippering". Results from differential detergent permeabilization experiments confirmed that peroxisomal APX is a C-terminal "tail-anchored" (Cmatrix-Ncytosol) membrane protein with a majority of the polypeptide facing the cytosol. Transient expression of several APX chimeras whose passenger polypeptides can form dimers or trimers resulted in the progressive formation of "globular" peroxisomes and circular pER membranes. Stable expression of the trimer-capable fusion protein yielded suspension cultures that reproducibly maintained a high degree of peroxisomal globules but relatively few detectable pER membranes. Electron micrographs revealed that the globules consisted of numerous individual peroxisomes, seemingly in direct contact with other peroxisomes and/or mitochondria. These peroxisomal clusters or aggregates were not observed in cells transiently expressing monomeric versions of APX. These findings indicate that the progressive, independent "zippering" of peroxisomes and pER is due to the post-sorting oligomerization of monomeric, cytosol-facing polypeptides that are integrally inserted into the membranes of "like" organelles. The dynamics of this process are discussed, especially with respect to the involvement of the microtubule cytoskeleton.

Effect of task-relevant cues and state anxiety on motor performance.

12 experienced, female trampolinists participated in a field study designed to test the conscious processing hypothesis, which predicts that the combination of task-relevant knowledge and high state anxiety will impair motor performance. Results supported the hypothesis; however, an alternative attentional explanation of the data was also identified.

Regulation of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) arginase in developing seedling tissue during germination and post-germinative growth.

After seed germination, hydrolysis of storage proteins provides a nitrogen source for the developing seedling. In conifers the majority of these reserves are located in the living haploid megagametophyte tissue. In the developing loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) seedling an influx of free amino acids from the megagametophyte accompanies germination and early seedling growth. The major component of this amino acid pool is arginine, which is transported rapidly and efficiently to the seedling without prior conversion. This arginine accounts for nearly half of the total nitrogen entering the cotyledons and is likely a defining factor in early seedling nitrogen metabolism. In the seedling, the enzyme arginase is responsible for liberating nitrogen, in the form of ornithine and urea, from free arginine supplied by the megagametophyte. In this report we investigate how the seedling uses arginase to cope with the large arginine influx. As part of this work we have cloned an arginase cDNA from a loblolly pine expression library. Analysis of enzyme activity data, accumulation of arginase protein and mRNA abundance indicates that increased arginase activity after seed germination is due to de novo synthesis of the enzyme. Our results suggest that arginase is primarily regulated at the RNA level during loblolly pine seed germination and post-germinative growth.

How are peroxisomes formed? The role of the endoplasmic reticulum and peroxins.

Recent data from studies of peroxisome assembly and the subcellular sorting of peroxisomal matrix and membrane proteins have led to an expansion of the 'growth and division' and 'endoplasmic reticulum-vesiculation' models of peroxisome biogenesis into a more flexible, unified model. Within this context, we discuss the proposed role for the endoplasmic reticulum in the formation of preperoxisomes and the potential for 15 Arabidopsis peroxin homologs to function in the biogenesis of peroxisomes in plant cells.

Immunocytological localization of two plant fatty acid desaturases in the endoplasmic reticulum.

The subcellular location of two integral membrane-bound fatty acid desaturases (Fads), Fad2 and Fad3, was elucidated by immunofluorescence microscopic analyses of tobacco suspension cells transiently transformed with different epitope-tagged versions of the enzymes. Both myc- or hemagglutinin-tagged Fad2 and Fad3 localized to the same region of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), as evidenced by their co-localization with the ER lumenal protein calreticulin. Results from differential permeabilization experiments revealed that the N-termini of both epitope-tagged Fad2 and Fad3 were exposed on the cytosolic side of ER membranes. These data define the subcellular location and topological orientation of plant desaturases in ER membranes.

Parents' perspectives on the MMR immunisation: a focus group study.

BACKGROUND: The uptake of the combined measles, mumps and rubella immunisation (MMR) in Britain has fallen since 1998, when a link was hypothesised with the development of bowel disorders and childhood autism. Despite reassurances about the safety of MMR, uptake levels remain lower than optimal. We need to understand what influences parents' decisions on whether to accept MMR or not so that health professionals can provide a service responsive to their needs. AIM: To investigate what influences parents' decisions on whether to accept or refuse the primary MMR immunisation and the impact of the recent controversy over its safety. DESIGN: Qualitative study using focus group discussions. SETTING: Forty-eight parents, whose youngest child was between 14 months and three years old, attended groups at community halls in six localities in Avon and Gloucestershire. METHODS: Purposive sampling strategy was used to include parents from a variety of socioeconomic backgrounds. Three groups comprised parents who had accepted MMR and three groups comprised parents who had refused MMR. Data analysis used modified grounded theory techniques incorporating the constant comparative method. RESULTS: All parents felt that the decision about MMR was difficult and stressful, and experienced unwelcome pressure from health professionals to comply. Parents were not convinced by Department of Health reassurances that MMR was the safest and best option for their children and many had accepted MMR unwillingly. Four key factors influenced parents' decisions: (a) beliefs about the risks and benefits of MMR compared with contracting the diseases, (b) information from the media and other sources about the safety of MMR, (c) confidence and trust in the advice of health professionals and attitudes towards compliance with this advice, and (d) views on the importance of individual choice within Government policy on immunisation. CONCLUSIONS: Parents wanted up-to-date information about the risks and benefits of MMR to be available in advance of their immunisation appointment. Many parents did not have confidence in the recommendations of health professionals because they were aware that GPs needed to reach immunisation targets. Most parents would, however, welcome more open discussion about immunisation with health professionals.

State anxiety and motor performance: testing the conscious processing hypothesis.

Previous research has argued that skills acquired explicitly are more likely to fail under stressful conditions than skills that have been learned implicitly. The present study addressed an alternative explanation for the robustness under stress of implicit task performance. As implicit learners acquired the skill of golf putting while generating random letters, it is possible that they became desensitized to self-generated verbalizations and thus immune to the effects of competitive anxiety. We tested this interpretation while controlling for a further rival hypothesis generated by Eysenck's Processing Efficiency Theory. We also examined the effect of increased state anxiety on the kinematic processes underlying performance breakdowns. For task performance, we found evidence that partially supported the conscious processing hypothesis, while the results of the kinematic analysis of the putting stroke were equivocal. Analysis of self-reported effort scores provided partial support for processing efficiency theory.

Intensity and direction of competitive state anxiety as interpreted by rugby players and rifle shooters.

This study reports the findings of part of an ongoing research program examining sports performers' interpretations of competitive anxiety prior to competition. The notion of 'directional perceptions' has questioned the limited utility of examining only the intensity of competitive anxiety responses as has Jones. The purpose of this study was to examine intensity and direction, i.e., interpretation of intensity as facilitative or debilitative, of anxiety symptoms as a function of two types of sport. The types of sport were explosive (rugby league) versus fine motor skills (target rifle shooting). The sample comprised 50 male rugby league participants and 50 target rifle shooters who completed a modified version of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 prior to competition. Contingency analysis yielded a significant difference in the number of rugby players who reported somatic anxiety as facilitative and the number of rifle shooters who reported somatic states as debilitative. No such differences were evident for cognitive anxiety. Analysis of variance indicated no differences between the two groups on the intensity of cognitive and somatic anxiety, but the performers competing in rugby league interpreted both states as being more facilitative to performance; the rugby league players also had higher scores on self-confidence than the shooters. These findings provide continuing support for the measurement of directional perceptions of competitive anxiety and highlight the importance of examining individual sports.