Travel time to health facilities in Papua New Guinea: Implications for coverage and equity in child vaccinations.

With infant and child mortality rates that are among the highest in the Pacific region, and basic vaccination coverage rates that are 39% among children 12-23 months, increased coverage of vaccines is a high priority investment for Papua New Guinea (PNG). Using recently gathered household survey data for PNG, this paper contributes to the evidence-base for enhancing investments in frontline facilities by examining the implications of travel time to health facilities for basic vaccination coverage among children in PNG. We find that vaccination coverage rates among children 12-23 months old in PNG are decreasing in distance to healthcare facilities; and this holds whether the outcome is receipt of basic vaccinations (BCG; 3 dose pentavalent; OPV3; Measles), or basic vaccinations-plus (basic vaccinations + Hepatitis B + PCV3). We also find that travel time to health facilities lowers vaccination rates among children 12-23 months old in poor households to a greater extent than for children from richer households. Thus, enhanced geographical access to and resourcing of frontline facilities is likely to expand not only immunization coverage, lower mortality and increase aggregate economic gains, but also improve the distribution of immunization coverage in PNG across socioeconomic groups.

Fee or free? Trading equity for quality of care for primary health care in Papua New Guinea.

Fee charging is common at primary health facilities in Papua New Guinea (PNG) and is poorly regulated. To understand the extent of user fees and their implications on access and service delivery, structured interviews with staff and users at 44 primary health facilities were conducted across seven provinces of PNG. Facilities were stratified by management (government or non-government) and accessibility (easy or difficult) and were then randomly selected. Staff at 37 (84%) of the 44 facilities reported charging user fees for at least some goods and services both at church- and government-run facilities. Twenty-one percent of all exit survey respondents said user fees had prevented them attending a health facility on at least one occasion. Almost one-third of facilities were in contradiction of national health policies, charging for deliveries and domestic violence injuries. Moreover, 33 of the 37 facilities charging user fees reported that revenue raised was used to cover operational costs of running health facilities meant to be funded by other sources. Whilst fee revenue reportedly provided valuable additional funding to increase capacity for service delivery, fees caused a barrier to access for some and exemptions were inconsistently applied, often in contradiction with national health policy.