Would the Real Loneliness Please Stand Up? The Validity of Loneliness Scores and the Reliability of Single-Item Scores.

Several measures that assess loneliness have been developed for adults. Across three studies, we investigated psychometric features of scores of different versions of the Rasch-Type Loneliness Scale, the University of California Los Angeles Loneliness Scale, and three single-item measures. In Study 1 (N = 697 self-ratings, N = 282 informant-ratings of 160 targets) and Study 2 (N = 1,216 individuals from 608 couples), we investigated convergent validity, self-informant agreement, and nomological nets of the item scores using correlates related to demographic aspects, personality, satisfaction, and network characteristics. In Study 3 (N = 411), we estimated a reliability of rxx>.70 for scores of three single-item measures of loneliness. Overall, scores of all measures and their nomological nets were highly correlated within and across studies, indicating that the scores of the included measures are all reliable and valid. Recommendations for choosing a loneliness measure are discussed.

The social side of personality: Do affiliation and intimacy motives moderate associations of personal relationships with well-being?

BACKGROUND: The quantity of social relationships and social interactions is positively related to well-being, but the underlying role of personality dispositions in these associations is unclear. The present study investigated whether social motives for affiliation and intimacy moderate associations of personal networks with well-being. METHOD: We analyzed data from N = 389 individuals living alone (aged 35-60 years) who provided self-reports of social motives and well-being, and who completed an ego-centered social network task. A subsample of N = 331 individuals participated in a social network diary with daily questions about social interactions within their personal networks. RESULTS: Overall, we found little support for moderations. Individuals higher in affiliation felt less lonely than individuals lower in affiliation when having more frequent in-person contact. Multilevel analyses of the diary data revealed that highly affiliative individuals reported being more satisfied than individuals lower in affiliation when having more daily social interactions than usual. No moderations were found in the context of intimacy. DISCUSSION: Findings suggest that, especially in the context of daily social encounters, affiliation might moderate associations of social interaction quantity with well-being. Implications for future research on personality-relationship dynamics in personal networks and daily social interactions are discussed.

The Caregiver Thoughts Scale: An Instrument to Assess Functional and Dysfunctional Thoughts about Caregiving.

OBJECTIVES: Caregivers' care-related thoughts critically effect their well-being. Currently, there is a lack of validated measures to systematically assess caregivers' functional and dysfunctional thoughts. We therefore aimed to develop a measure of caregivers' thoughts that assesses not only their dysfunctional but also their functional thoughts in multiple domains. METHODS: A pool of potential questionnaire items was generated from therapy sessions with caregivers and was rated by experts. A sample of 322 main family caregivers (Mage = 63.9 years) of a person with dementia then completed a set of 28 items about their care-related thoughts and a number of related measures at three measurement points. Items were then aggregated via a formative measurement approach based on theoretical considerations. Correlational analyses were used to examine the construct validity of the subscale scores. RESULTS: The final 28-item scale assesses caregiving thoughts in four distinct domains: dysfunctional caregiving standards, self-care, dysfunctional assumptions about dementia, and acceptance. The correlational analyses demonstrated the subscales' construct validity, by showing that scale scores are meaningfully related to theoretically relevant constructs. CONCLUSIONS: The Caregiving Thoughts Scale is a promising measure of caregivers' thoughts in four important domains. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: The scale can be applied in clinical research settings.

How (Not) to Measure Loneliness: A Review of the Eight Most Commonly Used Scales.

Loneliness affects well-being and has long-term negative impacts on physical and mental health, educational outcomes, and employability. Because of those current and long-term impacts, loneliness is a significant issue for which we need reliable and appropriate measurement scales. In the current paper, psychometric properties of the eight most commonly used loneliness scales are reviewed both descriptively and meta-analytically. Results suggest that for many of the scales, the psychometric properties are promising. However, for some psychometric features, especially test-retest reliability and measurement invariance, evidence is rather scarce. Most striking, however, is the fact that all of the scales included items that do not measure loneliness. Surprisingly, for many (sub)scales, this was even the case for about half of the items. Because our measures are the foundation of our research work, it is crucial to improve the way loneliness is being measured.

Women and Men are the Barometers of Relationships: Testing the Predictive Power of Women's and Men's Relationship Satisfaction.

There is a longstanding belief in relationship science and popular opinion that women are the barometers in mixed-gender relationships such that their perceptions about the partnership carry more weight than men's in predicting future relationship satisfaction, but this idea has yet to be rigorously tested. We analyze data from two studies to test within-person links between men's and women's relationship satisfaction on their own and their partner's next-day and next-year satisfaction. Study 1 combined nine daily diary datasets from Canada and the United States with 901 mixed-gender couples who provided 29,541 daily reports of relationship satisfaction. Study 2 analyzed five annual waves of data from the German Family Panel (pairfam) that surveyed 3,405 mixed-gender couples who provided 21,115 relationship satisfaction reports. Latent curve models with structured residuals (LCM-SR) revealed that in both studies, men's and women's relationship satisfaction significantly predicted their own and their partner's relationship satisfaction, with no gender differences in the magnitude of these effects. Results underscore the interdependence of romantic partners' satisfaction and indicate that both men and women jointly shape romantic relationship satisfaction.

A developmental perspective on personality-relationship transactions: Evidence from three nationally representative samples.

OBJECTIVE: Throughout their lives, people experience different relationship events, such as beginning or dissolving a romantic relationship. Personality traits predict the occurrence of such relationship events (i.e., selection effects), and relationship events predict changes in personality traits (i.e., socialization effects), summarized as personality-relationship transactions. So far, evidence was partly inconsistent as to how personality traits and relationship events are linked with each other. In this article, we argue that unnoticed age differences might have led to these inconsistencies. To systematically test for age differences in transactions, we conceptualize relationship events in terms of gains and losses and apply a developmental perspective on transactions. METHODS: Using longitudinal data from three nationally representative samples (SOEP, HILDA, Understanding Society), we computed event-focused latent growth models and summarized the results meta-analytically. RESULTS: The findings indicated some transactions. Of these, selection effects were stronger than socialization effects, and effects of gain-based events were stronger than effects of loss-based events. We observed few interactions with age. CONCLUSION: Selection effects and, particularly, socialization effects, tend to be rare and fairly independent of age. We discuss a series of broader and narrower factors that may have an impact on the strength of transactions across adulthood.

Within-Couple Associations Between Communication and Relationship Satisfaction Over Time.

Relationship science contends that the quality of couples' communication predicts relationship satisfaction over time. Most studies testing these links have examined between-person associations, yet couple dynamics are also theorized at the within-person level: For a given couple, worsened communication is presumed to predict deteriorations in future relationship satisfaction. We examined within-couple associations between satisfaction and communication in three longitudinal studies. Across studies, there were some lagged within-person links between deviations in negative communication to future changes in satisfaction (and vice versa). But the most robust finding was for concurrent within-person associations between negative communication and satisfaction: At times when couples experienced less negative communication than usual, they were also more satisfied with their relationship than was typical. Positive communication was rarely associated with relationship satisfaction at the within-person level. These findings indicate that within-person changes in negative communication primarily covary with, rather than predict, relationship satisfaction.

Is loneliness in emerging adults increasing over time? A preregistered cross-temporal meta-analysis and systematic review.

Judged by the sheer amount of global media coverage, loneliness rates seem to be an increasingly urgent societal concern. From the late 1970s onward, the life experiences of emerging adults have been changing massively due to societal developments such as increased fragmentation of social relationships, greater mobility opportunities, and changes in communication due to technological innovations. These societal developments might have coincided with an increase in loneliness in emerging adults. In the present preregistered cross-temporal meta-analysis, we examined whether loneliness levels in emerging adults have changed over the last 43 years. Our analysis is based on 449 means from 345 studies with 437 independent samples and a total of 124,855 emerging adults who completed the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) Loneliness Scale between 1976 and 2019. Averaged across all studies, loneliness levels linearly increased with increasing calendar years (ß = .224, 95% CI [.138, .309]). This increase corresponds to 0.56 standard deviations on the UCLA Loneliness Scale over the 43-year studied period. Overall, the results imply that loneliness can be a rising concern in emerging adulthood. Although the frequently used term "loneliness epidemic" seems exaggerated, emerging adults should therefore not be overlooked when designing interventions against loneliness. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

The role of extraversion and neuroticism for experiencing stress during the third wave of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Although long postulated, it has been scarcely researched how personality traits play out differently in distinct situations. We examined if Neuroticism and Extraversion, personality traits known to moderate stress processes, function differently in highly stressful situations requiring reduced social contact, that is, the COVID-19 pandemic. Based on past findings, we expected neuroticism to be associated with exacerbated perceptions of stress. In contrast to past findings, we expected extraversion, which usually ameliorates stress, to be associated with intensified perceptions of stress, especially in regard to the sociability facet. During the third wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany, one-hundred-thirty adults (age M = 21.7 years) reported on their personality traits including their facets with the BFI-2, COVID-19-related stressors, and their perceived stress during the last month (using the PSS). Findings indicated that neuroticism was associated with higher perceived stress regardless of the COVID-19-related stressors experienced. Facet level analysis revealed differences for anxiety, depression, and volatility. Importantly, trait extraversion was unassociated with stress experiences, whereas specifically the facet of sociability was associated with higher perceived stress. Also, the facets of assertiveness and energy both moderated the relationship between COVID-19-related stressors and perceived stress. In line with the transactional theory of stress, our findings indicate that perceptions of stress were best understood by looking at the interaction of environmental stressors and personality differences. Furthermore, the study substantiates that facets of personality traits offer unique information beyond broad traits in specific contexts.

Changes in Size and Interpretation of Parameter Estimates in Within-Person Models in the Presence of Time-Invariant and Time-Varying Covariates.

For several decades, cross-lagged panel models (CLPM) have been the dominant statistical model in relationship research for investigating reciprocal associations between two (or more) constructs over time. However, recent methodological research has questioned the frequent usage of the CLPM because, amongst other things, the model commingles within-person associations with between-person associations, while most developmental research questions pertain to within-person processes. Furthermore, the model presumes that there are no third variables that confound the relationships between the longitudinally assessed variables. Therefore, the usage of alternative models such as the Random-Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Model (RI-CLPM) or the Latent Curve Model with Structured Residuals (LCM-SR) has been suggested. These models separate between-person from within-person variation and they also control for time constant covariates. However, there might also be third variables that are not stable but rather change across time and that can confound the relationships between the variables studied in these models. In the present article, we explain the differences between the two types of confounders and investigate how they affect the parameter estimates of within-person models such as the RI-CLPM and the LCM-SR.

The Stability and Change of Loneliness Across the Life Span: A Meta-Analysis of Longitudinal Studies.

Individuals experience loneliness when they perceive a deficiency in the quality or quantity of their social relationships. In the present meta-analysis, we compiled data from 75 longitudinal studies conducted in Asia, Australia, Europe, and North America (N = 83, 679) to examine the rank-order and mean-level development of loneliness across the life span. Data were analyzed using two- and three-level meta-analyses and generalized additive mixed models. The results indicate that the rank order of loneliness is as stable as the rank order of personality traits and follows an inverted U-shaped trajectory across the life span. Regarding mean-level development, loneliness was found to decrease throughout childhood and to remain essentially stable from adolescence to oldest old age. Thus, in contrast to other personality characteristics, changes in loneliness are not generally related to age. Implications for theory are discussed.

Owner of a lonely heart: The stability of loneliness across the life span.

Individuals feel lonely when they perceive a discrepancy between their aspired and their actually experienced amount of closeness and intimacy in social relationships. In the present study, we disentangled developmental constancy factors, time-varying factors such as person-environment transactions, and stochastic mechanisms as sources of interindividual differences in loneliness by applying STARTS models in nationally representative samples from Germany (n = 13,397), Switzerland (n = 6,599), Australia (n = 30,496), and The Netherlands (n = 12,810). Across the 4 studies, we found trait-like sources reflecting developmental constancy factors and the influence of time-varying factors to account for 19-43% and 23-30% of interindividual differences in loneliness, respectively. Depending on the type of measurement instrument, state-like stochastic mechanisms accounted for 30% to 55% of interindividual differences, whereby multi-item measures were less affected by stochastic mechanisms. We found gradual sex differences but considerable differences between age groups regarding the amount of interindividual differences in loneliness accounted for by the three sources. Taken together, the results demonstrate that interindividual differences in loneliness are to a large degree trait-like. Based on these findings, we discuss implications for theory and measurement. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Beyond the Cross-Lagged Panel Model: Next-generation statistical tools for analyzing interdependencies across the life course.

For decades, researchers have employed the Cross-Lagged Panel Model (CLPM) to analyze the interactions and interdependencies of a wide variety of inner- or supra-individual variables across the life course. However, in the last years the CLPM has been criticized for its underlying assumptions and several alternative models have been proposed that allow to relax these assumptions. With the Random-Intercept CLPM, the Autoregressive Latent Trajectory Model with Structured Residuals, and the Dual Change Score Model, we describe three of the most prominent alternatives to the CLPM and provide an impression about how to interpret the results obtained with these models. To this end, we illustrate the use of the presented models with an empirical example on the interplay between self-esteem and relationship satisfaction. We provide R and Mplus scripts that might help life course researchers to use these novel and powerful alternatives to the CLPM in their own research.

The Winding Paths of the Lonesome Cowboy: Evidence for Mutual Influences Between Personality, Subjective Health, and Loneliness.

Prior research demonstrated influences of personality traits and their development on later status of subjective health and loneliness. In the present study, we intended to extend these findings by examining mutual influences between health-related characteristics and personality traits and their development over time. German adults were assessed at two time points across 15 years (NT1 = 654, NT2 = 271; Mage at Time 1 = 24.39, SD = 3.69). Data were analyzed with multivariate structural equation models and a multivariate latent change model. Neuroticism was found to predict later levels and the development of subjective health and loneliness. While subjective health likewise predicted later levels of Neuroticism, loneliness was found to be predictive of later levels as well as the development of Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Conscientiousness. Correlated changes indicated that developing a socially more desirable personality is associated with slower declines in subjective health and slower increases in loneliness. The findings indicate that characteristics related to an individual's health are reciprocally associated with personality traits. Thus, the study adds to the understanding of the development of personality and health-related characteristics.

Treating personality-relationship transactions with respect: narrow facets, advanced models, and extended time frames.

Contrary to premises of dynamic transactionism, most studies investigating personality-relationship transaction only found personality effects on relationships but failed to find effects of relationship experiences on personality development. The current study reconsiders this issue in 3 ways. First, alongside the broad Big Five characteristics (Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness), specific personality facets were considered to make comparisons with relationships more symmetric. Second, a recent extension of latent change modeling was applied allowing for a theoretically more appropriate model that compensates for the shortcomings of traditionally used cross-lagged panel or growth curve models. Third, personality-relationship transaction was studied from young adulthood to midlife using a 15-year longitudinal study with 654 German adults. Results showed patterns of personality-relationship transaction with the romantic partner, friends, kin, and other interaction partners. Specifically, the development of Neuroticism, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness and their facets was closely interacting with partner and friend relationships, underlining the importance of these relationships for personality maturation during the adult years. We conclude that relationship effects have often been underestimated in previous studies. They are not bound to specific developmental periods, such as emerging adulthood, but their detection depends on the modeling approach and the analysis level (broad dimensions vs. facets). Relationship effects are most likely to occur in relationships that reflect self-selected life styles and circumstances.

Personality-relationship transactions revisited.

The transactional paradigm states that people create, maintain, and change their environments according to their personalities. At the same time, the environment reacts back on personality. As social relationships are part of an individual's environment, this likewise implies that there are reciprocal transactions between personality and relationships. However, earlier studies have concluded that adult personality traits are so stable that they have a stronger effect on later relationships, but that relationship effects on personality are negligible. In this article, we contend that personality-relationship transactions should be revisited. We submit that the relative powers of personality versus relationship effects depend on the type of life transition during which the effects take place: Relationship effects on personality development are more likely to emerge in the context of rather normative and highly scripted life transitions, whereas personality effects on relationship development are more likely to occur in the context of rather non-normative life transitions that are less regulated by social expectations. We illustrate these assumptions with examples from our own work and other findings reported in the literature. Furthermore, we theorize that effects of personality-relationship transactions on health also vary with the normativeness of the eliciting life transition.

The costs of repression: a meta-analysis on the relation between repressive coping and somatic diseases.

OBJECTIVE: When Freud introduced the term repression, he stated its pathogenic potential. Since then, this notion was adapted and continued to date. Surprisingly, there is no attempt to synthesize research on the effect of repressive coping on somatic diseases quantitatively. The current study closes this gap and examines the association between repressive coping as operationalized by Weinberger, Schwartz, and Davidson (1979) and the incidence of cancer, cardiovascular diseases, asthma, and diabetes by applying meta-analytic techniques. METHOD: An extensive literature search identified 22 studies that met all inclusion criteria and assessed a total of 6,775 participants. The study set was analyzed both as a whole sample (k = 22 studies) and disease-specific (k = 2-10 studies; no study found for diabetes). RESULTS: The results of the meta-analysis indicate a higher risk for repressive copers to suffer from one of the investigated diseases, especially cancer (logOdds after diagnosis: 0.41; 95% confidence interval, 0.09-0.73, p = .012) and hypertension (logOdds: 0.59; 95% confidence interval, 0.32-0.86, p < .0001). After application of a continuity correction due to a missing control group the results for coronary heart disease imply an increased risk for nonrepressors to be affected. Results for cardiovascular diseases in general, heart attack, and asthma did not reach significance. CONCLUSIONS: The current meta-analysis revealed significant associations between repressive coping, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases, especially hypertension. These results add to the notion of repressive coping as a consequence of cancer as well as to its important role for the issue of hypertension.