Predicting Chemical Composition and Apparent Total Tract Digestibility on Freeze-Dried Not Ground Faeces Using Near-Infrared Spectroscopy in Pigs.

The present study aimed to compare NIRS results using freeze-dried ground or not ground (FDG or FDNG) faeces to predict faecal chemical composition and apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) coefficients. Two different batches of pigs were used (n = 20 mixed sex pens/batch; 11 pigs/pen; Duroc × (Large White × Landrace)). The first batch of pigs (B1; 50.1 ± 3.44 kg body weight (BW)) was used at 13 wks of age and the second batch (B2; 87.0 ± 4.10 kg BW) was used at 18 wks of age. For both B1 and B2, pens were assigned to five diets formulated to obtain a control [10.03 MJ of net energy (NE), 160.0 g of crude protein (CP), and 9.5 g of standardized ileal digestive (SID) lysine (Lys) per kg of feed], low protein (132.0 g CP and 7.5 g SID Lys), high protein (188.0 g CP and 11.5 g SID Lys), low energy (9.61 MJ NE/kg), and high energy (10.45 MJ NE/kg) diets. After a 10-day adaptation period, one faecal sample was collected daily from each pen floor during 6 days in both B1 and B2 (n = 120/batch). Faecal samples were freeze-dried and analysed via NIRS as FDNG and FDG faeces. Dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM), CP, gross energy (GE), fat, and ATTD coefficients were analysed/calculated. The NIRS calibrations were evaluated by cross-validation, splitting the data in four random groups, or using the leave-one-out method. For both FDNG and FDG faeces, coefficients of determination for calibration (R2cv) and residual predictive deviation (RPD) values were: close to 0.9 and 3 for DM and CP, 0.7-0.8 and ≥2 for OM and GE, 0.6 and <2 for fat, and 0.54-0.75 and ≤2 for ATTD coefficients, respectively. CP was better predicted using FDG faeces (p < 0.05), while DM and OM ATTD were better predicted using FDNG faeces (p < 0.05). In conclusion, NIRS successfully predicts faeces' chemical components and ATTD coefficients of nutrients using FDNG or FDG faeces.

Assessment of Pain and Inflammation in Domestic Animals Using Infrared Thermography: A Narrative Review.

Pain assessment in domestic animals has gained importance in recent years due to the recognition of the physiological, behavioral, and endocrine consequences of acute pain on animal production, welfare, and animal model validity. Current approaches to identifying acute pain mainly rely on behavioral-based scales, quantifying pain-related biomarkers, and the use of devices monitoring sympathetic activity. Infrared thermography is an alternative that could be used to correlate the changes in the superficial temperature with other tools and thus be an additional or alternate acute pain assessment marker. Moreover, its non-invasiveness and the objective nature of its readout make it potentially very valuable. However, at the current time, it is not in widespread use as an assessment strategy. The present review discusses scientific evidence for infrared thermography as a tool to evaluate pain, limiting its use to monitor acute pain in pathological processes and invasive procedures, as well as its use for perioperative monitoring in domestic animals.

Vitality in Newborn Farm Animals: Adverse Factors, Physiological Responses, Pharmacological Therapies, and Physical Methods to Increase Neonate Vigor.

Vitality is the vigor newborn animals exhibit during the first hours of life. It can be assessed by a numerical score, in which variables, such as heart rate, respiratory rate, mucous membranes' coloration, time the offspring took to stand up, and meconium staining, are monitored. Vitality can be affected by several factors, and therapies are used to increase it. This manuscript aims to review and analyze pharmacological and physical therapies used to increase vitality in newborn farm animals, as well as to understand the factors affecting this vitality, such as hypoxia, depletion of glycogen, birth weight, dystocia, neurodevelopment, hypothermia, and finally, the physiological mechanism to achieve thermostability. It has been concluded that assessing vitality immediately after birth is essential to determine the newborn's health and identify those that need medical intervention to minimize the deleterious effect of intrapartum asphyxia. Vitality assessment should be conducted by trained personnel and adequate equipment. Evaluating vitality could reduce long-term neonatal morbidity and mortality in domestic animals, even if it is sometimes difficult with the current organization of some farms. This review highlights the importance of increasing the number of stock people during the expected days of parturitions to reduce long-term neonatal morbidity and mortality, and thus, improve the farm's performance.

Blood and faecal biomarkers to assess dietary energy, protein and amino acid efficiency of utilization by growing and finishing pigs.

BACKGROUND: Diet evaluation and optimization is a slow and expensive process and it is not possible to do it at a farm level. This study aimed to use the blood serum metabolite (BSM) and faecal volatile fatty acid (VFA) profiles as potential biomarkers to identify changes in protein, amino acid and energy dietary content in growing and finishing pig diets at farm level. RESULTS: Two studies were conducted. The first study (S1) included 20 pens of 11 pigs (87.0 ± 4.10 kg; 18 weeks old) assigned to 5 diets: control (C1), high or low crude protein (HP1 and LP1, respectively), and high or low net energy (HE1 and LE1, respectively). The second study (S2) included 28 pens of 11 pigs (41.3 ± 2.60 kg; 12 weeks old) assigned to 7 diets: control (C2), high or low crude protein (HP2 and LP2, respectively), high or low amino acid (HA2 and LA2, respectively), and high or low net energy (HE2 and LE2, respectively). Pigs were followed for 10 (S1) and 20 (S2) days, and blood and faecal samples were collected at 20 (S1) and 14 (S2) weeks of age. Data were analysed using general linear models and receiver operating characteristic curve analysis. Urea nitrogen showed the best results as a biomarker. Urea nitrogen was higher in pigs fed high protein diets, HP1 (13.6 ± 0.95 mg/dL) and HP2 (11.6 ± 0.61), compared to those fed low protein diets, LP1 (6.0 ± 0.95) and LP2 (5.2 ± 0.61; P < 0.001), showing good discrimination ability (Area under the curve (AUC) = 98.4 and 100%, respectively). These differences were not observed between diets LA2 (6.5 ± 0.61) and HA2 (8.7 ± 0.61; P > 0.05; AUC = 71.9%), which were formulated based on the ideal protein profile but with no excess of protein. Creatinine, triglycerides, branched-chain fatty acids, albumin, propionic acid, and cholesterol showed differences between at least 2 diets but only in one of the studies. CONCLUSIONS: Urea nitrogen showed high accuracy to detect excess of crude protein in growing and finishing pig diets. Other biomarkers like BCFA showed promising results and need to be further studied.

Strategies for Hypothermia Compensation in Altricial and Precocial Newborn Mammals and Their Monitoring by Infrared Thermography.

Thermoregulation in newborn mammals is an essential species-specific mechanism of the nervous system that contributes to their survival during the first hours and days of their life. When exposed to cold weather, which is a risk factor associated with mortality in neonates, pathways such as the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) are activated to achieve temperature control, increasing the circulating levels of catecholamine and cortisol. Consequently, alterations in blood circulation and mechanisms to produce or to retain heat (e.g., vasoconstriction, piloerection, shivering, brown adipocyte tissue activation, and huddling) begin to prevent hypothermia. This study aimed to discuss the mechanisms of thermoregulation in newborn domestic mammals, highlighting the differences between altricial and precocial species. The processes that employ brown adipocyte tissue, shivering, thermoregulatory behaviors, and dermal vasomotor control will be analyzed to understand the physiology and the importance of implementing techniques to promote thermoregulation and survival in the critical post-birth period of mammals. Also, infrared thermography as a helpful method to perform thermal measurements without animal interactions does not affect these parameters.

Pathophysiology of Perinatal Asphyxia in Humans and Animal Models.

Perinatal asphyxia is caused by lack of oxygen delivery (hypoxia) to end organs due to an hypoxemic or ischemic insult occurring in temporal proximity to labor (peripartum) or delivery (intrapartum). Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy is the clinical manifestation of hypoxic injury to the brain and is usually graded as mild, moderate, or severe. The search for useful biomarkers to precisely predict the severity of lesions in perinatal asphyxia and hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) is a field of increasing interest. As pathophysiology is not fully comprehended, the gold standard for treatment remains an active area of research. Hypothermia has proven to be an effective neuroprotective strategy and has been implemented in clinical routine. Current studies are exploring various add-on therapies, including erythropoietin, xenon, topiramate, melatonin, and stem cells. This review aims to perform an updated integration of the pathophysiological processes after perinatal asphyxia in humans and animal models to allow us to answer some questions and provide an interim update on progress in this field.

Effect of Phase Feeding, Space Allowance and Mixing on Productive Performance of Grower-Finisher Pigs.

This study investigates the effects of space allowance (SA), mixing and phase feeding (PF) on performance of grower-finisher pigs. Three trials (T) were conducted. In T1 and T2, 345 pigs/trial were moved to finisher stage at 11 weeks of age and assigned to two SAs: 0.96 (n = 15 pens; 10 pigs/pen) and 0.78 (n = 15; 13 pigs/pen) m2/pig. Mixing was applied to 5 pens of each SA leading to a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement (SA × Mixing). For PF, 2 diets with 0.95 and 0.82 g SID Lys/MJ NE were applied to 5 pens of each SA (not mixed) leading to another 2 × 2 factorial arrangement (SA × PF). In T3, 230 pigs were moved to the grower-finisher stage at 11 weeks of age, mixed, and assigned to 4 treatments (SA × PF; n = 5 pens). Data were analyzed using general linear mixed models. SA did not affect performance (p > 0.05). Non-mixed pigs were 5.40 (T1) and 5.25 (T2) kg heavier than mixed pigs at 21 weeks of age (p < 0.001). PF reduced performance of pigs by 3.45 (T1) and 4.05 (T2) kg at 21 weeks of age (p < 0.001). In conclusion, mixing and reducing SID Lys:NE ratio from 0.95 to 0.82 g/MJ at 15-16 weeks of age, have a more marked impact on performance than reducing SA from 0.96 to 0.78 m2/pig.

High levels of standardized ileal digestible amino acids improve feed efficiency in slow-growing pigs at late grower-finisher stage.

Slow-growing pigs negatively affect production efficiency in conventional pig farms by increasing the occupation time of the facilities and being a limiting factor for the All-In/All-Out swine production systems. This subset of pigs is usually managed with the rest of the pigs, and their nutrient requirements may not be fulfilled. The purpose of the present study was to compare the productive performance of slow- and fast-growing pigs to different standardized ileal digestible (SID) amino acids (AA) dietary levels at late grower-finisher stage. A total of 84 pigs were weighed, tagged, and classified as slow-growing (SG; n = 48; 24.1 ± 1.38 kg) or fast-growing pigs (FG; n = 36; 42.7 ± 1.63 kg) at 11 weeks of age. Pigs were housed in mixed sex pens (n = 8 SG+6 FG/pen) equipped with feeding stations to record daily feed intake per individual pig. Pigs were assigned to three dietary treatments resulting in a 2 × 3 factorial arrangement at 15 weeks of age. Isoenergetic diets were formulated by increasing the ideal protein profile based on the following SID lysine (Lys) levels: 0.92%, 1.18% and 1.45%. Pigs were weighed bi-weekly until 21 weeks of age. Fast-growing pigs were 33.7 kg heavier, gained 255 g/day and consumed 625.5 g/day more than SG pigs (p < 0.001). No interaction or diet effects were observed for final body weight, average daily gain and average daily feed intake (p > 0.05). However, feed conversion ratio was 0.3 lower for SG pigs fed 1.45% SID Lys/AA compared to SG pigs fed 0.92% SID Lys/AA (p = 0.002). Feed conversion ratio was not different within the FG pigs' dietary treatments (p > 0.05). The efficiency of SG pigs may be improved when dietary SID AA levels are increased from 0.92 up to 1.45% SID Lys/AA. Thus, nutrient requirements may vary depending on growth rate at the same age, and SG pigs may require higher dietary SID AA levels than FG pigs to achieve similar productive performance.

Toward the automated detection of behavioral changes associated with the post-weaning transition in pigs.

We modified an automated method capable of quantifying behaviors which we then applied to the changes associated with the post-weaning transition in pigs. The method is data-driven and depends solely on video-captured image data without relying on sensors or additional pig markings. It was applied to video images generated from an experiment during which post-weaned piglets were subjected to treatments either containing or not containing in-feed antimicrobials (ZnO or antibiotics). These treatments were expected to affect piglet performance and health in the short-term by minimizing the risk from post-weaning enteric disorders, such as diarrhea. The method quantified total group feeding and drinking behaviors as well as posture (i.e., standing and non-standing) during the first week post-weaning, when the risk of post-weaning diarrhea is at its highest, by learning from the variations within each behavior using data manually annotated by a behavioral scientist. Automatically quantified changes in behavior were consistent with the effects of the absence of antimicrobials on pig performance and health, and manifested as reduced feed efficiency and looser feces. In these piglets both drinking and standing behaviors were increased during the first 6 days post-weaning. The correlation between fecal consistency and drinking behavior 6 days post weaning was relatively high, suggesting that these behaviors may have a diagnostic value. The presence or absence of in-feed antimicrobials had no effect on feeding behavior, which, however, increased over time. The approach developed here is capable of automatically monitoring several different behaviors of a group of pigs at the same time, and potentially this may be where its value as a diagnostic tool may lie.

Allonursing in Wild and Farm Animals: Biological and Physiological Foundations and Explanatory Hypotheses.

The dams of gregarious animals must develop a close bond with their newborns to provide them with maternal care, including protection against predators, immunological transference, and nutrition. Even though lactation demands high energy expenditures, behaviors known as allonursing (the nursing of non-descendant infants) and allosuckling (suckling from any female other than the mother) have been reported in various species of wild or domestic, and terrestrial or aquatic animals. These behaviors seem to be elements of a multifactorial strategy, since reports suggest that they depend on the following: species, living conditions, social stability, and kinship relations, among other group factors. Despite their potential benefits, allonursing and allosuckling can place the health and welfare of both non-filial dams and alien offspring at risk, as it augments the probability of pathogen transmission. This review aims to analyze the biological and physiological foundations and bioenergetic costs of these behaviors, analyzing the individual and collective advantages and disadvantages for the dams' own offspring(s) and alien neonate(s). We also include information on the animal species in which these behaviors occur and their implications on animal welfare.

Parturition in Mammals: Animal Models, Pain and Distress.

Parturition is a complex physiological process and involves many hormonal, morphological, physiological, and behavioural changes. Labour is a crucial moment for numerous species and is usually the most painful experience in females. Contrary to the extensive research in humans, there are limited pain studies associated with the birth process in domestic animals. Nonetheless, awareness of parturition has increased among the public, owners, and the scientific community during recent years. Dystocia is a significant factor that increases the level of parturition pain. It is considered less common in polytocous species because newborns' number and small size might lead to the belief that the parturition process is less painful than in monotocous animal species and humans. This review aims to provide elements of the current knowledge about human labour pain (monotocous species), the relevant contribution of the rat model to human labour pain, and the current clinical and experimental knowledge of parturition pain mechanisms in domestic animals that support the fact that domestic polytocous species also experience pain. Moreover, both for women and domestic animal species, parturition's pain represents a potential welfare concern, and information on pain indicators and the appropriate analgesic therapy are discussed.

Effect of space allowance and mixing on growth performance and body lesions of grower-finisher pigs in pens with a single wet-dry feeder.

BACKGROUND: Low space allowance (SA) and mixing may result in reduced growth performance (GP) and animal welfare issues because of adverse social behaviours directed to pen mates. This could be exacerbated in pens with single space feeders owing to social facilitation of feeding behaviour. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of SA and mixing on GP and body lesions (BL) in pens with one single space wet-dry feeder. RESULTS: Two experiments were conducted on grower-finisher pigs from 10 to 21 weeks of age. In Exp1, pigs (N = 216) were assigned to three SA; 0.96 m2/pig (n = 6 pens; 10 pigs/pen; SA96), 0.84 m2/pig (n = 6; 12 pigs/pen; SA84) and 0.72 m2/pig (n = 6; 14 pigs/pen; SA72), in a randomized design. In Exp2, pigs (N = 230) were used in a 2 × 2 factorial randomized design considering SA and mixing as treatments. Pigs were assigned to two SA; 0.96 m2/pig (n = 10 pens; 10 pigs/pen; SA96) and 0.78 m2/pig (n = 10; 13 pigs/pen; SA78) and were either mixed or not at the entry to the finishing facility. GP was not affected by SA (P > 0.05) in either experiment. In Exp2, non-mixed pigs were 5.4 kg heavier (P <  0.001), gained 74 g more per day (P = 0.004), consumed 101.8 g more of feed per day (P = 0.007) and tended to have higher feed efficiency (P = 0.079) than mixed pigs from 11 to 21 weeks of age. Number of BL was affected by SA in both experiments. In Exp1, SA72 pigs had 74.4 and 97.4% more BL than SA96 and SA84 pigs at 20 weeks of age respectively (P <  0.01). In Exp2, SA78 pigs had 48.6, 43.6 and 101.3% more BL than SA96 pigs at 12, 16 and 21 weeks of age respectively (P <  0.05). Mixing did not affect the number of BL from 12 to 21 weeks of age in Exp2 (P > 0.05). CONCLUSION: Mixing had a considerable effect on growth performance thus, strategies to avoid or mitigate mixing should be considered. Although space allowance had no effect on growth performance, high number of body lesions in the lower space allowance indicates that space allowances equal or below 0.78 m2/pig are detrimental to the welfare of pigs despite following the EU legislation.

Predicting Productive Performance in Grow-Finisher Pigs Using Birth and Weaning Body Weight.

This study aimed to (1) investigate the effect of birth and weaning body weight (BW) on performance indicators of grow-finisher pigs and (2) estimate birth and weaning BW cut-off values in order to identify slow growing pigs (SGP). Pigs (n = 144) were classified as SMALL (0.9 ± 0.13 kg) or BIG (1.4 ± 0.20 kg) at birth and re-classified as SMALL (5.4 ± 1.6 kg) or BIG (6.3 ± 1.91 kg) at weaning. Individual BW was recorded bi-weekly, and feed intake was recorded on a daily basis. Average daily gain (ADG) and feed intake, feed conversion ratio (FCR) and days to target slaughter weight (TSW) were calculated. SMALL-SMALL pigs had lower ADG (p < 0.05) requiring 167.1 days (i.e., 14.2 extra days) to TSW (p < 0.05) compared with BIG pigs at birth and/or weaning. However, FCR was similar between groups (p > 0.05). Pigs weaned at <3.7 kg BW would likely be SGP. Pigs born at ≥1.1 kg BW or weaned at ≥6.4 kg BW are more likely to reach TSW at 22 weeks of age. The results suggest that birth BW might not be the best predictor for subsequent performance, as some small-born pigs were able to catch up with their bigger counterparts. The cut-off values identified could be used to design specific management and nutritional strategies for SGP.

Extended nursing and/or increased starter diet allowances for low weaning weight pigs.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the use of nurse sows and post-weaning nutrition strategies for low wean weight (WW) pigs on lifetime growth and efficiency. METHODS: Animals (n = 270) were assigned to one of five treatments at 28 d. Low WW pigs (<6 kg) were either weaned and offered a special dietary regime recommended for low WW pigs (WEAN) or placed on a nurse sow (NURSE) and weaned at 49 d. Normal WW pigs (9 kg) (NORM) were also weaned at 28 d. After weaning, NORM and NURSE pigs were offered either a 'high' (4 kg/pig of starter 1 diet followed by 8 kg/pig of starter 2 diet) or 'low' (8 kg/pig of starter 2 diet) starter diet allowance in a 2×2 factorial arrangement. A typical grower diet was then offered, followed by a typical finisher diet until 147 d of age. RESULTS: NORM pigs where heavier throughout their life compared to NURSE pigs (91.4 kg vs 76.2 kg at 147 d; p<0.001). WEAN pigs were heavier at 70 d compared to NURSE pigs (23.9 kg vs 21.0 kg; p<0.001), but there was no significant difference at 147 d between NURSE and WEAN treatments. NURSE pigs had reduced feed intake throughout the finishing period (1.6 kg/d; p<0.001) compared to WEAN (2.0 kg/d) and NORM (1.9 kg/d) pigs. Feed conversion ratio (FCR) of NURSE (2.20) was lower than NORM and WEAN during the finishing period (2.40 and 2.79, respectively). CONCLUSION: Extended (up to 49 d) nursing for low WW pigs resulted in improved FCR during the finishing period, but no overall improvement in growth rate compared to low WW pigs weaned at 28 d and offered a specialised starter regime. Normal WW pigs where significantly heavier than low WW pigs throughout the study.

Reproductive performance of weaned sows after single fixed-time artificial insemination under a tropical climate: Influences of season and insemination technique.

We evaluated the reproductive performance of sows after single fixed-time AI under a tropical climate and investigated the influences of season and insemination technique on the efficacy of single fixed-time AI. After weaning, the sows were divided into CONTROL (n = 212) and FIXED-TIME (n = 212) groups. Sows in the CONTROL group were inseminated at 12 and 36 h after the onset of oestrus, while sows in the FIXED-TIME group were administered 10 µg of GnRH at 72 h after weaning and were inseminated 32 h later. Reproductive performance parameters, including total born, born alive, mummified foetuses and stillborn piglets per litter, piglet birth weight, variation of piglet birth weight within litter, regular return-to-oestrus and farrowing rate, were compared between the two groups. Season was classified into two groups: cool (n = 170) and hot (n = 254), and insemination technique was classified into two groups: conventional AI (n = 171) and intra-uterine insemination (IUI) with a reduced number of spermatozoa (n = 253). On average, regular return-to-oestrus (3.3 vs. 5.6%, P > 0.05) and farrowing rates (92.8 vs. 88.1%, P > 0.05) did not differ between CONTROL and FIXED-TIME groups. However, the total born and born alive piglets per litter in the FIXED-TIME were lower than in the CONTROL group (12.0 vs. 12.8 piglets/litter; P = 0.030 and 11.3 vs. 12.2 piglets/litter, P = 0.007). Interestingly, the number of total born piglets in the FIXED-TIME group was lower than in the CONTROL group only in the sows inseminated in the hot season (11.7 ±â€¯0.32 and 12.9 ±â€¯0.31, respectively, P = 0.005). Piglet birth weight, variation of piglet birth weight within litter, number of piglets at weaning and body weight of piglets at weaning did not differ between groups, irrespective of the season (P > 0.05). The total number of piglets born per litter in the FIXED-TIME group was lower than that in the CONTROL group in sows inseminated via IUI (11.7 ±â€¯0.32 and 12.9 ±â€¯0.32, respectively, P = 0.013), but not in sows inseminated using conventional AI (12.7 ±â€¯0.42 and 12.5 ±â€¯0.41, respectively, P = 0.772). Single fixed-time AI could be successfully performed in sows under a tropical climate, with a promising reproductive performance. However, a decreased litter size at birth after single fixed-time AI was observed when insemination was performed in the hot season. Moreover, single fixed-time AI using IUI with a reduced number of spermatozoa also decreased litter size at birth.

Effects of the Feed: Water Mixing Proportion on Diet Digestibility of Growing Pigs.

The effect of different water-to-feed ratios on apparent total tract digestibility of energy and nutrients were evaluated in growing-finishing pigs. In trial 1 (26 d), 16 female pigs (46.7 ± 1.98 kg of body weight, BW) were individually assigned to four treatments (n = 4). In trial 1, pigs were fed a control diet in dry form (CON) and in blend form with water-to-feed ratios of 0.6:1, 2.1:1 and 2.7:1. In trial 2 (26 d), rearranged animals (65.4 ± 3.14 kg of BW) were assigned a control diet in dry form (CON) and ratios of 1.35:1, 2.7:1 and 3.5:1. In trial 1, pigs fed on ratios of 2.1:1 and 2.7:1 had a higher organic matter digestibility (OMd) and gross energy digestibility (GEd) than CON. In trial 2, pigs fed on ratios of 1.35:1, 2.7:1, and 3.5:1 had a higher OMd and GEd than CON. Quadratic regressions showed the maximum dilution rate to reach higher digestibility coefficients at 1.83:1 and at 2.7:1 for trials 1 and 2, respectively. During trial 1, pigs on the 0.6:1 dilution rate had higher weight gain than those on CON. The water-to-feed ratio that optimized OM and GE digestibility may increase with the age of the pigs.

A Review of the Effects of Non-Straw Enrichment on Tail Biting in Pigs.

Tail biting remains a common problem in pig production. As producers are reluctant to use straw to reduce this behaviour, we review studies on the effectiveness of other types of enrichment. Roughage, hessian sacks, compost, fresh wood, space dividers, rope, and providing new objects regularly can significantly reduce tail damage. These results should be interpreted with some caution, as often only one study per enrichment could be identified. No evidence was found that commonly applied enrichment objects (processed wood, plastic or metal) reduce tail biting significantly unless exchanged regularly, even though multiple studies per type of enrichment were identified. Many studies evaluated the duration of enrichment use, but few evaluated the manner of use. This hampers identification of combinations of enrichment that will satisfy the pig's motivation to eat/smell, bite, root and change enrichments, which is suggested to reduce tail biting. New objects designed to satisfy specific motivations were shown to receive high levels of interaction, but their effectiveness at reducing tail damage remains unknown. More in-depth study of how pigs interact with non-straw enrichment, which motivations this satisfies and how this affects behaviour towards conspecifics, is necessary to optimize enrichment strategies. Optimization is necessary because ceasing tail docking in a way that improves pig welfare requires more effective enrichments than those described in this review, or alternatively, better control over other factors influencing tail biting.

Administration of carbetocin after the first piglet was born reduced farrowing duration but compromised colostrum intake in newborn piglets.

Carbetocin is an oxytocin-like compound with long acting properties that has recently been introduced to both human and domestic animal obstetrics. The aims of the present study were to evaluate the effects of carbetocin administration after the first piglet was born on farrowing duration, birth interval, colostrum consumption and vitality index in newborn piglets. In total, 186 sows and their offspring (n = 2611 piglets) were distributed into three groups: 1) CONTROL: sows were allowed to farrow naturally (n = 66); 2) OXY: sows were administered oxytocin 20 IU intramuscularly after the first piglet was born (n = 62); and 3) CARBE: sows were administered carbetocin 0.6 µg/kg intramuscularly after the first piglet was born (n = 58). The reproductive data of sows including farrowing duration, total number of piglets born per litter (TB), number of piglets born alive per litter (BA), proportion of stillborn piglets per litter (SB) and proportion of mummified fetuses per litter (MF) were recorded. Piglet vitality index including skin colour, integrity of the umbilical cord, heart rate, blood oxygen saturation, screaming score, udder stimulation score, movement capacity and number of completed circles around enclosure were determined. Birth weights of the piglets were measured immediately at birth and again at 24 h thereafter to determine the individual colostrum intake of the piglets. On average, the farrowing duration, birth interval and BA were 188.0 ±â€¯95.7 min, 12.5 ±â€¯18.3 min, and 12.3 ±â€¯2.9 piglets per litter, respectively. The farrowing duration of the sows was reduced in CARBE group (151.2 ±â€¯11.9 min) compared to OXY (180.2 ±â€¯11.5 min, P = 0.003) and CONTROL (227.7 ±â€¯11.2 min, P < 0.001) groups. Birth interval of piglets in all categories of birth weight in the CARBE group was shorter than those in the CONTROL group (P < 0.05). However, the colostrum yield of sows in CARBE group (2398 ±â€¯133 g) was lower than CONTROL and OXY groups (3371 ±â€¯125 g and 3549 ±â€¯128 g, respectively; P < 0.001). Similarly, colostrum intake of piglets in the CONTROL and OXY groups was higher than in the CARBE group (276.4 ±â€¯11.0 g, 286.4 ±â€¯13.6 g and 225.3 ±â€¯14.0 g, respectively; P < 0.05). The percentage of stillborn piglets in CARBE was higher than OXY (8.7 ±â€¯1.1% vs 5.3 ±â€¯1.1%, P < 0.05) but did not differ significantly compared to CONTROL (7.5 ±â€¯1.1%, P > 0.05). The piglet movement capacity in CONTROL was lower than CARBE group (1.36 vs 1.48, P < 0.05) but was not different compared to OXY group (1.40, P > 0.05). In conclusion, administration of carbetocin after the birth of the first piglet reduced the farrowing duration of sows, but increased the number of stillborn piglets and reduced the colostrum yield of sows.

l-arginine supplementation in sow diet during late gestation decrease stillborn piglet, increase piglet birth weight and increase immunoglobulin G concentration in colostrum.

The fetal growth is rapid during the last trimester of gestation in sows and hence sow nutrition during this period is important for fetal growth and development. During the last decade, studies reported that l-arginine HCl supplementation during gestation increased sow and piglet performances. However, clinical studies concerning the association between l-arginine HCL supplementation and some neonatal piglet characteristics as well as colostrum and milk yield of sow are still lacking. The present study aims to determine the effect of l-arginine HCl supplementation in sow diet during late gestation on piglet characteristics at birth, colostrum consumption (CC), concentration of immunoglobulin G (IgG) in colostrum, milk yield, average daily gain at d 7 and 21 and piglet mortality at d 7 and 21 of life. In total, 166 sows were allocated into four groups, i.e., CON (n = 66), ARG-0.5 (n = 42), ARG-1.0 (n = 41) and ALA (n = 17). The sows in each group were fed with a conventional gestation diet (CON) or the same diet supplemented with 0.5% l-arginine HCl (ARG-0.5), 1.0% l-arginine HCl (ARG-1.0) or 1.7% l-alanine (ALA, isonitrogenous with ARG-1.0). The feeding protocol was carried out from 85 days of gestation until farrowing. The proportion of live-born piglets, piglet birth weight (BWB), within-litter variation of BWB, proportion of piglets with BWB above 1.35 kg, proportion of growth-restricted piglets (defined as BWB below 1.0 kg), blood oxygen saturation (SatO2) and heart rate were determined in 2292 newborn piglets from 166 litters. Colostrum consumption of each individual piglets and the colostral concentration of IgG was determined. The milk yield between d 0-7 and 7-21 and relative backfat loss were estimated in each individual sow. The piglet mortality and body weight was determined at d 7 and 21 of life. On average, the number of piglet born alive per litter was 12.4. The proportion of stillborn piglets, piglets with BWB above 1.35 kg and growth-restricted piglets were 6.9%, 62.7% and 14.0%, respectively. Piglet preweaning mortality at d 7 and 21 were 8.5% and 12.4%, respectively. Compared to the ALA group, ARG-0.5 increased the proportion of live-born piglets per litter (+9.8%, P < 0.001), reduced stillborn (-8.3%, P < 0.001) and tended to increase the proportion of piglets with BWB above 1.35 kg (+6.4%, P = 0.08). Compared to the CON group, ARG-0.5 increased BWB (+7.0%, P < 0.001), increased SatO2 (+3%, P < 0.001) and reduced heart rate (-20%, P < 0.001) and tended to reduce the relative backfat loss (-4.4%, P = 0.06). No difference between ARG-1.0 and ARG-0.5 was observed among these traits. Other traits including within-litter variation of BWB, growth-restricted piglets, average daily gain, piglets preweaning mortality and CC and milk yield were not affected by treatment (P > 0.05). The colostral concentration of IgG at 1 h after onset of farrowing in ARG-1.0 sows (116 mg/ml) was higher than CON, ARG-0.5 and ALA sows (85, 74 and 78 mg/ml, respectively; P < 0.05). In conclusions, dietary l-arginine HCl supplementation in late gestating sows favourably increased proportion of live-born piglets, BWB, SatO2 and IgG concentration in the sow colostrum.

The effect of creep feed intake and starter diet allowance on piglets' gut structure and growth performance after weaning.

Diets offered to lactating and weaned piglets are the most expensive diets within pig production; however, the effect of these diets on lifetime pig performance is inconsistent. The objective of the current study was to investigate the impact of creep feed consumption during lactation and different starter diet allowances on piglets' gut structure and lifetime growth performance. In total, 320 pigs and 80 pigs (Landrace × Large White) were used after weaning in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement to study growth performance and gut structure, respectively. At weaning, piglets that ate creep feed and piglets that were not offered creep feed during lactation were allocated to 2 kg/pig [low level (LL)] or 6 kg/pig [high level (HL)] of starter 1 diet (16.5 MJ DE/kg, 22.5% CP, and 1.7% total Lys) allowance. At weaning and at 1 and 3 wk after weaning, 8 piglets per treatment were sacrificed, and their small intestine morphology was evaluated (villus height and crypt depth). Piglets that ate creep feed had increased feed intake during the first week after weaning (P < 0.05), but no effect of creep feed intake was observed on piglets growth or gut structure during the postweaning period (both P > 0.05). Piglets that were fed HL after weaning had higher ADG and BW from weaning to 16 wk after weaning (both P < 0.05) and had lower feed conversion ratio (FCR) from weaning to 6 wk after weaning (P < 0.05). Piglets fed HL after weaning also had higher villi height and greater crypt depth than LL piglets at 3 wk after weaning (both P < 0.05). Creep feed consumption during lactation increases feed intake early after weaning, suggesting an improved capacity of piglets to cope with weaning, but did not influence their growth performance. Offering piglets 6 kg of starter diet enhances piglets' growth performance during the growing and finishing phase, probably by improving gut structure after weaning.