Postprandial activation of leukocyte-endothelium interaction by fatty acids in the visceral adipose tissue microcirculation.

High-fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity is associated with accumulation of inflammatory cells predominantly in visceral adipose depots [visceral adipose tissue (VAT)] rather than in subcutaneous ones [subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT)]. The cellular and molecular mechanisms responsible for this phenotypic difference remain poorly understood. Controversy also exists on the overall impact that adipose tissue inflammation has on metabolic health in diet-induced obesity. The endothelium of the microcirculation regulates both the transport of lipids and the trafficking of leukocytes into organ tissue. We hypothesized that the VAT and SAT microcirculations respond differently to postprandial processing of dietary fat. We also tested whether inhibition of endothelial postprandial responses to high-fat meals (HFMs) preserves metabolic health in chronic obesity. We demonstrate that administration of a single HFM or ad libitum access to a HFD for 24 h quickly induces a transient P-selectin-dependent inflammatory phenotype in the VAT but not the SAT microcirculation of lean wild-type mice. Studies in P-selectin-deficient mice confirmed a mechanistic role for P-selectin in the initiation of leukocyte trafficking, myeloperoxidase accumulation, and acute reduction in adiponectin mRNA expression by HFMs. Despite reduced VAT inflammation in response to HFMs, P-selectin-deficient mice still developed glucose intolerance and insulin resistance when chronically fed an HFD. Our data uncover a novel nutrient-sensing role of the vascular endothelium that instigates postprandial VAT inflammation. They also demonstrate that inhibition of this transient postprandial inflammatory response fails to correct metabolic dysfunction in diet-induced obesity.-Preston, K. J., Rom, I., Vrakas, C., Landesberg, G., Etwebe, Z., Muraoka, S., Autieri, M., Eguchi, S., Scalia, R. Postprandial activation of leukocyte-endothelium interaction by fatty acids in the visceral adipose tissue microcirculation.

[Linezolid-induced Apoptosis through Mitochondrial Damage and Role of Superoxide Dismutase-1 in Human Monocytic Cell Line U937].

Cytopenia is a major adverse event associated with linezolid therapy. The objective of this study was to examine whether the cytotoxicity of linezolid to eukaryotic cells was associated with mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis-like cell death in human leukemic monocyte lymphoma cell line U937. Apoptosis-like cell death was clearly observed when cells were incubated with linezolid, depending on the duration and linezolid concentration. Mitochondrial membrane potential of cells treated with linezolid collapsed in a short period of time, but the number of mitochondria did not decrease. Cytotoxicity of linezolid was relieved by the knockdown of superoxide dismutase-1 in U937 cells. On the other hand, no autophagy was observed in cells treated with linezolid. These results suggest that mitochondrial damages would be linked to the induction of apoptosis in U937 cells treated with linezolid and that its mechanism does not involve autophagy.

Increase of Anti-oxidative Capacity during Differentiation of 3T3-L1 Preadipocytes into Adipocytes.

Cells have developed ingenious defense mechanisms in response to oxidative stress. Here, we evaluated changes in anti-oxidative capacity during differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes into adipocytes. When 3T3-L1 preadipocytes were treated with H2O2 (0.10-2.0 mM) for 21 h, cell viability decreased in response to H2O2 concentration, with an LD50 of approximately 0.35 mM H2O2. In the cells undergoing differentiation at 2 and 6 d, LD50 increased to 1.0 and >2.0 mM H2O2, respectively. These results indicate that resistance to oxidative stress dramatically increased with progression of differentiation of preadipocytes into adipocytes. Catalase activity and GSH content increased in the differentiated cells at 6 d, whereas superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activities were slightly lower in adipocytes than in preadipocytes. Moreover, knockdown of catalase or depletion of intracellular GSH enhanced the sensitivity to H2O2. When GSH was added to the cells depleted of intracellular GSH, the antioxidant capacity recovered. Autophagy was increased in differentiated adipocytes but was not affected by H2O2 treatment. Therefore, these results suggest that the increase in intracellular catalase activity and GSH content played a role in the increased anti-oxidative capacity of differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes.

Inactivation of cholinesterase induced by non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs with horseradish peroxidase: implication for Alzheimer's disease.

AIMS: To clarify the mechanism of the protective effect of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) on Alzheimer's disease, inactivation of cholinesterase (ChE) induced by NSAIDs was examined. MAIN METHODS: Equine ChE and rat brain homogenate were incubated with NSAIDs and horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and H(2)O(2) (HRP-H(2)O(2)). ChE activity was measured by using 5,5'-dithiobis(nitrobenzoic acid). By using electron spin resonance, NSAID radicals induced by reaction with HRP-H(2)O(2) were detected in the presence of spin trap agents. KEY FINDINGS: Equine ChE was inactivated by mefenamic acid with HRP-H(2)O(2). ChE activity in rat brain homogenate decreased dependent on the concentration of mefenamic acid in the presence of HRP-H(2)O(2). NSAIDs diclofenac, indomethacin, phenylbutazone, piroxicam and salicylic acid inactivated ChE. Oxygen radical scavengers did not prevent inactivation of ChE induced by mefenamic acid with HRP-H(2)O(2). However, spin trap agents 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline-l-oxide and N-methyl-nitrosopropane, reduced glutathione and ascorbic acid strongly inhibited inactivation of ChE, indicating participation of mefenamic acid radicals. Fluorescent emission of ChE peaked at 400 nm, and the Vmax value of ChE changed during interaction of mefenamic acid with HRP-H(2)O(2), indicating that ChE may be inactivated through modification of tyrosine residues by mefenamic radicals. SIGNIFICANCE: The protective effect of NSAIDs on Alzheimer's disease seems to occur through inactivation of ChE induced by NSAIDs radicals.

[Metabolism of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs by peroxidase: implication for gastrointestinal mucosal lesions].

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are widely used to treat inflammatory diseases including rheumatoid arthritis and gout. The anti-inflammatory action of NSAIDs is due to the inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis by preventing cyclooxygenase (COX) activity of prostaglandin H synthase (PGS). However, administration of NSAIDs causes gastrointestinal mucosal lesions and a decrease of granulocytes as side effects. PGS catalyzes two distinct enzyme reactions: (1) bis-dioxygenation of arachidonic acid catalyzed by COX activity of PGS to form PGG(2); and (2) reduction of the hydroperoxide group in PGG(2) by PGS hydroperoxidase. Most NSAID are oxidized by peroxidases to produce NSAID radicals that damage biological components such as lipids and enzymes. Indomethacin, phenylbutazone, and piroxicam are more toxic under aerobic conditions than anaerobic conditions during the interaction with peroxidase. We discuss the contribution of peroxidases in the formation of gastrointestinal mucosal lesions induced by NSAIDs.

Inactivation of alpha1-antiproteinase induced by phenylbutazone: participation of peroxyl radicals and hydroperoxide.

To clarify the action of a side-effect of phenylbutazone, we investigated the inactivation of alpha(1)-antiproteinase induced by phenylbutazone in the presence of horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and H(2)O(2) (HRP-H(2)O(2)). The activity of alpha(1)-antiproteinase was rapidly lost during the interaction of phenylbutazone with HRP-H(2)O(2) under aerobic conditions. Phenylbutazone showed a marked spectral change under aerobic conditions but not under anaerobic conditions. Spin trap agents were very effective in inhibiting alpha(1)-antiproteinase inactivation induced by phenylbutazone. Oxidation of phenylbutazone was stopped by catalase, but the inactivation reaction of alpha(1)-antiproteinase proceeded even after removal of H(2)O(2) in the reaction mixture. Formation of the peroxidative product from phenylbutazone was detected by iodometric assay. These results indicate that both peroxyl radicals and the peroxidative product of phenylbutazone participated in the inactivation of alpha(1)-antiproteinase. Other anti-inflammatory drugs did not inactivate alpha(1)-antiproteinase during interaction with HRP-H(2)O(2). Inactivation of alpha(1)-antiproteinase may contribute to serious side effects of phenylbutazone.

Salicylic acid-induced inactivation of creatine kinase in the presence of lactoperoxidase and H2O2.

To clarify one mechanism of aspirin-induced gastric mucosal damage, inactivation of creatine kinase (CK) by salicylic acid that is easily produced from aspirin in vivo was examined in the presence of lactoperoxidase (LPO) and H2O2 (LPO-H2O2). Salicylic acid inactivated CK (rabbit muscle) during its interaction with LPO-H2O2. CK activity in gastric mucosal homogenate decreased dependent on the concentration of salicylic acid in the presence of LPO-H2O2. Oxygen radical scavengers did not prevent the inactivation of CK. Direct detection of free radicals of salicylic acid by electron spin resonance was unsuccessful. However, glutathionyl radicals were formed during the interaction of salicylic acid with LPO-H2O2 in the presence of reduced glutathione and 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline oxide as a spin trap agent. Among salicylic acid-related drugs, salsalate, but not aspirin and ethenzamide, inactivated CK, indicating the phenolic hydroxyl group is oxidized by LPO-H2O2. During oxidation of salicylic acid by LPO-H2O2, the sulfhydryl group in CK markedly decreased, and salicylic acid bound to CK. These results indicate that CK was inactivated through loss of the sulfhydryl group and binding of salicylic acid.

Thiol oxidation induced by oxidative action of adriamycin.

To clarify the mechanism of the cardiotoxic action of adriamycin (ADM), the participation of free radicals from ADM in cardiotoxicity was investigated through the protective action of glutathione (GSH) or by using electron spin resonance (ESR). Oxidation of ADM by horseradish peroxidase and H2O2 (HRP-H2O2) was blocked by GSH concentration dependently. Inactivation of creatine kinase (CK) induced during interaction of ADM with HRP-H2O2 was also protected by GSH. Other anthracycline antitumor drugs that have a p-hydroquinone structure in the B ring also inactivated CK, and GSH inhibited the inactivation of CK. These results suggest that ADM was activated through oxidation of the p-hydroquinone in the B ring by HRP-H2O2. Although ESR signals of the oxidative ADM B ring semiquinone were not detected, glutathionyl radicals were formed during the interaction of ADM with HRP-H2O2 in the presence of GSH. ADM may be oxidized to the ADM B ring semiquinone and then reacts with the SH group. However, ESR signals of ADM C ring semiquinone, which was reductively formed by xanthine oxidase (XO) and hypoxanthine (HX) under anaerobic conditions, were not diminished by GSH, but they completely disappeared with ferric ion. These results indicate that oxidative ADM B ring semiquinones oxidized the SH group in CK, but reductive ADM C ring semiquinone radicals may participate in the oxidation of lipids or DNA and not of the SH group.

Inactivation of alcohol dehydrogenase by piroxicam-derived radicals.

Alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) was used as a marker molecule to clarify the mechanism of gastric mucosal damage as a side effect of using piroxicam. Piroxicam inactivated ADH during interaction of ADH with horseradish peroxidase and H2O2 (HRP-H2O2). The ADH was more easily inactivated under aerobic than anaerobic conditions, indicating participation by oxygen. Superoxide dismutase, but not hydroxyl radical scavengers, inhibited inactivation of ADH, indicating participation by superoxide. Sulfhydryl (SH) groups in ADH were lost during incubation of piroxicam with HRP-H2O2. Adding reduced glutathione (GSH) efficiently blocked ADH inactivation. Other SH enzymes, including creatine kinase and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, were also inactivated by piroxicam with HRP-H2O2. Thus SH groups in the enzymes seem vulnerable to piroxicam activated by HRP-H2O2. Spectral change in piroxicam was caused by HRP-H2O2. ESR signals of glutathionyl radicals occurred during incubation of piroxicam with HRP-H2O2 in the presence of GSH. Under anaerobic conditions, glutathionyl radical formation increased. Thus piroxicam free radicals interact with GSH to produce glutathionyl radicals. Piroxicam peroxyl radicals or superoxide, or both, seem to inactivate ADH. Superoxide may be produced through interaction of peroxyl radicals with H2O2. Thus superoxide dismutase may inhibit inactivation of ADH through reducing piroxicam peroxyl radicals or blocking interaction of SH groups with O2 , or both. Other oxicam derivatives, including isoxicam, tenoxicam and meloxicam, induced ADH inactivation in the presence of HRP-H2O2.

Inhibition of xanthine oxidase by phytic acid and its antioxidative action.

We examined if phytic acid inhibits the enzymatic superoxide source xanthine oxidase (XO). Half inhibition of XO by phytic acid (IC50) was about 30 mM in the formation of uric acid from xanthine, but generation of the superoxide was greatly affected by phytic acid; the IC50 was about 6 mM, indicating that the superoxide generating domain of XO is more sensitive to phytic acid. The XO activity in intestinal homogenate was also inhibited by phytic acid. However, it was not observed with intestinal homogenate that superoxide generation was more sensitive to phytic acid compared with the formation of uric acid as observed with XO from butter milk. XO-induced superoxide-dependent lipid peroxidation was inhibited by phytic acid, but not by myo-inositol. Reduction of ADP-Fe3+ caused by XO was inhibited by superoxide dismutase, but not phytic acid. The results suggest that phytic acid interferes with the formation of ADP-iron-oxygen complexes that initiate lipid peroxidation. Both phytic acid and myo-inositol inhibited XO-induced superoxide-dependent DNA damage. Mannitol inhibited the DNA strand break. Myo-inositol may act as a hydroxyl radical scavenger. The antioxidative action of phytic acid may be due to not only inhibiting XO, but also preventing formation of ADP-iron-oxygen complexes.

Inhibition by uric acid of free radicals that damage biological molecules.

To clarify the antioxidative role of uric acid, its ability to scavenge carbon-centered and peroxyl radicals and its inhibitory effect on lipid peroxidation induced by various model systems were examined. Uric acid efficiently scavenged carbon-centered and peroxyl radicals derived from the hydrophilic free radical generator 2,2'-azobis-(2-amidinopropane)-dihydrochloride (AAPH). All damage to biological molecules, including protein, DNA and lipids induced by AAPH, was strongly prevented by uric acid. In contrast, alpha-tocopherol had little effect on damage to biological molecules. Lipid peroxidation by the lipophilic free radical generator 2,2'-azobis(2,4-dimethylvaleronitrile) (AMVN) was little inhibited by uric acid, but not by alpha-tocopherol. Copper-induced lipid peroxidation was inhibited by uric acid and alpha-tocopherol. NADPH- and ADP-Fe(3+)-dependent microsomal lipid peroxidation was efficiently inhibited by alpha-tocopherol, but not by uric acid. Uric acid seems to scavenge free radicals in hydrophilic conditions to inhibit lipid peroxidation on the lipid-aqueous boundary, and the antioxidation is only little in lipophilic conditions.

[Free radicals mediate cardiac toxicity induced by adriamycin].

Anthracycline antibiotics, including adriamycin (ADM), are widely used to treat various human cancers, but their clinical use has been limited because of their cardiotoxicity. ADM is especially toxic to heart tissue. The mechanisms responsible for the cardiotoxic effect of ADM have been very/extremely controversial. This review focuses on the participation of free radicals generated by ADM in the cardiotoxic effect. ADM is reduced to a semiquinone radical species by microsomal NADPH-P450 reductase and mitochondrial NADH dehydrogenase. In the presence of oxygen, the reductive semiquinone radical species produces superoxide and hydroxyl radicals. Generally, lipid peroxidation proceeds by mediating the redox of iron. ADM extracts iron from ferritin to form ADM-Fe3+, which causes lipid peroxidation of membranes. These events may lead to disturbance of the membrane structure and dysfunction of mitochondria. However, superoxide dismutase and hydroxyl radical scavengers have little effect on lipid peroxidation induced by ADM-Fe3+. Alternatively, ADM is oxidatively activated by peroxidases to convert to an oxidative semiquinone radical, which participates in inactivation of mitochondrial enzymes or including succinate dehydrogenase and creatine kinase. Here, we discuss the activation of ADM and the role of reductive and oxidative ADM semiquinone radicals in the cardiotoxic effect of this antibiotic.

Inactivation of cholinesterase induced by chlorpromazine cation radicals.

To clarify the mechanism of the side effect of chlorpromazine, we examined the inactivation of cholinesterase induced by chlorpromazine. Cholinesterase was inactivated and its activity was lost in rat serum during interaction of chlorpromazine with horseradish peroxidase and H2O2. When chlorpromazine was oxidized by horseradish peroxidase and H2O2, the reaction solution colored pink and the visible absorption spectrum was consistent with the absorption spectrum of the chlorpromazine cation radical (CPZ*+). Adding cholinesterase immediately decreased the pink color of CPZ*+, indicating that CPZ*+ directly attacked cholinesterase to cause loss of the enzyme activity. Tryptophan residues in cholinesterase sharply decreased during the interaction of cholinesterase with horseradish peroxidase and H2O2. Presumably, loss of tryptophan residues changed the conformation of the cholinesterase protein and then the activity of the enzyme was lost. Other phenothiazine derivatives, including promethazine, triflupromazine, trifluoperazine, trimeprazine, thioridazine and perphenazine, also inactivated cholinesterase during the oxidation by horseradish peroxidase and H2O2. These results suggest that phenothiazine cation radicals participate in toxicological signs caused by the drugs.

Inactivation of creatine kinase during the interaction of mefenamic acid with horseradish peroxidase and hydrogen peroxide: participation by the mefenamic acid radical.

Creatine kinase (CK) was used as a marker molecule to examine the side effects of damage to tissues by mefenamic acid, an effective drug to treat rheumatic and arthritic diseases, with horseradish peroxidase and hydrogen peroxide (HRP-H(2)O(2)). Mefenamic acid inactivated CK during its interaction with HRP-H(2)O(2). Also, diphenylamine and flufenamic acid caused a loss of CK activity, indicating the imino group, not substituent groups, in the phenyl rings have a crucial role in CK inactivation. Rapid change in mefenamic acid spectra was detected, suggesting that mefenamic acid is efficiently oxidized by HRP-H(2)O(2). Peroxidases oxidize xenobiotics to free radicals by a one-electron transfer. However, direct detection of mefenamic acid radicals by electron spin resonance (ESR) was unsuccessful. Reduced glutathione and 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline-1-oxide (DMPO) in the reaction mixture containing mefenamic acid with HRP-H(2)O(2) produced ESR signals consistent with a DMPO-glutathionyl radical adduct. These results suggest that inactivation of CK is probably caused through formation of mefenamic acid radicals. Sulfhydryl groups and tryptophan residues of CK were diminished by mefenamic acid with HRP-H(2)O(2). Other SH enzymes, including alcohol dehydrogenase and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, were very sensitive to mefenamic acid with HRP-H(2)O(2). Inactivation of SH enzymes may explain some deleterious actions of mefenamic acid.

Inactivation of mitochondrial succinate dehydrogenase by adriamycin activated by horseradish peroxidase and hydrogen peroxide.

Although human cancers are widely treated with anthracycline drugs, these drugs have limited use because they are cardiotoxic. To clarify the cardiotoxic action of the anthracycline drug adriamycin (ADM), the inhibitory effect on succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) by ADM and other anthracyclines was examined by using pig heart submitochondrial particles. ADM rapidly inactivated mitochondrial SDH during its interaction with horseradish peroxidase (HRP) in the presence of H(2)O(2) (HRP-H(2)O(2)). Butylated hydroxytoluene, iron-chelators, superoxide dismutase, mannitol and dimethylsulfoxide did not block the inactivation of SDH, indicating that lipid-derived radicals, iron-oxygen complexes, superoxide and hydroxyl radicals do not participate in SDH inactivation. Reduced glutathione was extremely efficient in blocking the enzyme inactivation, suggesting that the SH group in enzyme is very sensible to ADM activated by HRP-H(2)O(2). Under anaerobic conditions, ADM with HRP-H(2)O(2) caused inactivation of SDH, indicating that oxidized ADM directly attack the enzyme, which loses its activity. Other mitochondrial enzymes, including NADH dehydrogenase, NADH oxidase and cytochrome c oxidase, were little sensitive to ADM with HRP-H(2)O(2). SDH was also sensitive to other anthracycline drugs except for aclarubicin. Mitochondrial creatine kinase (CK), which is attached to the outer face of the inner membrane of muscle mitochondria, was more sensitive to anthracyclines than SDH. SDH and CK were inactivated with loss of red color of anthracycline, indicating that oxidative activation of the B ring of anthracycline has a crucial role in inactivation of enzymes. Presumably, oxidative semiquinone or quinone produced from anthracyclines participates in the enzyme inactivation.

Lipid peroxidation induced by phenylbutazone radicals.

Lipid peroxidation was investigated to evaluate the deleterious effect on tissues by phenylbutazone (PB). PB induced lipid peroxidation of microsomes in the presence of horseradish peroxidase and hydrogen peroxide (HRP-H2O2). The lipid peroxidation was completely inhibited by catalase but not by superoxide dismutase. Mannitol and dimethylsulfoxide had no effect. These results indicated no paticipation of superoxide and hydroxyl radical in the lipid peroxidation. Reduced glutathione (GSH) efficiently inhibited the lipid peroxidation. PB radicals emitted electron spin resonance (ESR) signals during the reaction of PB with HRP-H2O2. Microsomes and arachidonic acid strongly diminished the ESR signals, indicating that PB radicals directly react with unsaturated lipids of microsomes to cause thiobarbituric acid reactive substances. GSH sharply diminished the ESR signals of PB radicals, suggesting that GSH scavenges PB radicals to inhibit lipid peroxidation. Also, 2-methyl-2-nitrosopropan strongly inhibited lipid peroxidation. R-Phycoerythrin, a peroxyl radical detector substance, was decomposed by PB with HRP-H2O2. These results suggest that lipid peroxidation of microsomes is induced by PB radicals or peroxyl radicals, or both.

Lipid peroxidation induced by indomethacin with horseradish peroxidase and hydrogen peroxide: involvement of indomethacin radicals.

Some of the side-effects of using indomethacin (IM) involve damage to the gastric mucosa and liver mitochondria. On the other hand, neutrophils infiltrate inflammatory sites to damage the tissues through the generation of reactive oxygen species by myeloperoxidase. The stomach and intestine have large amounts of peroxidase. These findings suggest that peroxidases are involved in tissue damage induced by IM. To clarify the basis for the tissue damage induced by IM in the presence of horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and H2O2 (HRP-H2O2), lipid peroxidation was investigated. When IM was incubated with liver microsomes in the presence of HRP-H2O2 and ADP-Fe3+, lipid peroxidation was time-dependent. Catalase and desferrioxamine almost completely inhibited lipid peroxidation, indicating that H2O2 and iron are necessary for lipid peroxidation. Of interest, superoxide dismutase strongly inhibited lipid peroxidation, and it also inhibited the formation of bathophenanthroline-Fe2+, indicating that reduction of the ferric ion was due to superoxide (O2-). ESR signals of IM radicals were detected during the interaction of IM with HRP-H2O2. However, the IM radical by itself did not reduce the ferric ion. These results suggest that O2- may be generated during the interaction of IM radicals with H2O2. Ferryl species, which are formed during the reduction of iron by O2-, probably are involved in lipid peroxidation.

Inactivation of creatine kinase induced by stilbene derivatives.

Compounds acting as antioxidants to lipids often have a prooxidant effect on DNA or protein. In this study, inactivation of creatine kinase was examined as an indicator of protein damage induced by antioxidative stilbene derivatives, including diethylstilboestrol, resveratrol and tamoxifen, with horseradish peroxidase and hydrogen peroxide (horseradish peroxidase-H2O2). Diethylstilboestrol and resveratrol, but not tamoxifen, rapidly inactivated creatine kinase. Also, creatine kinase in heart homogenate was inactivated by diethylstilboestrol and resveratrol. Tamoxifen, which has no phenolic hydroxyl groups in its structure, was about 10 times less active in protecting lipids and creatine kinase than diethylstilboestrol and resveratrol, suggesting that phenolic hydroxyl groups in diethylstilboestrol and resveratrol of stilbene derivatives are anti- and pro-oxidative. Absorption spectra of these stilbene derivatives rapidly changed during the reaction with horseradish peroxidase-H202. Diethylstilboestrol and resveratrol free radicals emitted electron spin resonance signals and creatine kinase effectively diminished the electron spin resonance signals. These results suggest that free radicals of diethylstilboestrol and resveratrol formed through reaction with horseradish peroxidase-H202 inactivated creatine kinase. Presumably, oxidation of essential cysteine and tryptophan residues lead to inactivation of creatine kinase. Other enzymes, including alcohol dehydrogenase and cholinesterase, were also sharply inhibited by diethylstilboestrol and resveratrol with horseradish peroxidase-H202. Free radicals of diethylstilboestrol and resveratrol seem to mediate between anti- and prooxidative actions.

Protection by estrogens of biological damage by 2,2'-azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride.

We examined by using 2,2'-azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride (AAPH) as a radical generator the ability of estrogens to scavenge carbon-centered and peroxyl radicals. Electron spin resonance signals of carbon-centered radicals from AAPH were diminished by catecholestrogens but not by phenolic estrogens, showing that catecholestrogens efficiently scavenged carbon-centered radicals. However, fluorescent decomposition of R-phycoerythrin by AAPH-derived peroxyl radicals was inhibited by catecholestrogens and phenolic estrogens. Evidently, peroxyl radicals were scavenged by catecholestrogens and by phenolic estrogens. However, the scavenging ability of 4-hydroxyestradiol was less than 2-hydroxyestradiol. Strand break of DNA induced by AAPH was inhibited by catecholestrogens, but not by phenolic estrogens under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Inactivation of lysozyme induced by AAPH was completely blocked by 2-hydroxyestradiol under aerobic and anaerobic conditions, and by 4-hyroxyestradiol only under anaerobic conditions. Peroxidation of arachidonic acid by AAPH was strongly inhibited by catecholestrogens at low concentrations. Only large amounts of phenolic estrogens markedly inhibited lipid peroxidation. These results show that catecholestrogens were antioxidant against AAPH-induced damage to biological molecules through scavenging both carbon-centered and peroxyl radicals, but phenolic estrogens partially inhibited AAPH-induced damage because they scavenged only peroxyl radicals.