Discrimination and Cardiovascular Health in Black Americans: Exploring Inflammation as a Mechanism and Perceived Control as a Protective Factor.

OBJECTIVE: Inflammation may be an integral physiological mechanism through which discrimination impacts cardiovascular health and contributes to racial health disparities. Limited research has examined psychosocial factors that protect against the negative effects of discrimination on inflammation. Perceived control is a promising possible protective factor, given that it has been shown to moderate the relationship between other psychosocial stressors and physiological outcomes. This study thus tested whether systemic inflammation mediated the link between discrimination and cardiovascular health and whether perceived control moderated this relationship. METHODS: Data for this project included 347 non-Hispanic/Latinx Black adults (mean [standard deviation] age = 51.64 [11.24] years; 33% female) taken from the Midlife in the United States study. Perceived control and daily discrimination were assessed via self-report, and inflammation was measured via circulating levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), fibrinogen, and tumor necrosis factor α. Cardiovascular health was measured by morbidity of cardiovascular conditions: heart disease, hypertension, and/or stroke. RESULTS: CRP (indirect effect: b = 0.004, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.001-0.007) and fibrinogen (indirect effect: b = 0.002, 95% CI = 0.0003-0.005) mediated the link between discrimination and cardiovascular conditions. Perceived control moderated the relationship between discrimination and CRP ( F (1, 293) = 4.58, Δ R2 = 0.013, b = -0.02, SE = 0.01, p = .033). CRP mediated the link between discrimination and cardiovascular conditions only for those who reported low levels of perceived control (Index = -0.003, 95% CI = -0.007 to -0.0001). CONCLUSION: Findings provide empirical evidence of inflammation as a mechanism linking discrimination to cardiovascular conditions among Black Americans. Additionally, perceived control may be protective. Findings could suggest beliefs about control as a potential intervention target to help reduce the negative effects of discrimination on cardiovascular health among Black Americans.

Higher interleukin-6 is associated with greater momentary social connection in close relationships in daily life.

Recent evidence has documented associations between higher levels of inflammation and social approach behaviors toward close others in laboratory-based tasks. Yet it is unknown if this translates to interactions with close others in daily life. Given that momentary experiences of social connection have both relational and health consequences, this is a critical gap in our knowledge. To address the association between inflammation and momentary social connection experiences in close relationships, 55 participants provided blood samples on two consecutive days, which were assayed for circulating levels of the inflammatory marker interleukin-6 (IL-6). After providing the first blood sample, participants received the annual influenza vaccine as a mild inflammatory challenge. Participants also reported on cognitive, affective, and behavioral indicators of social connection with a specific close other multiple times across the two study days. Results indicated that levels of IL-6 were positively associated with temporally-proximal indicators of momentary social connection with a close other. Specifically, higher levels of IL-6 were associated with greater feelings of comfort from the close other, greater desire to be near them, and higher reported relationship quality. Greater IL-6 reactivity to the vaccine was only associated with increased reported relationship quality. These data add to the existing literature suggesting that higher levels of IL-6 may motivate social approach toward a close other, extending evidence to now include momentary social connection experiences in daily life.

Social class stigma and poorer health behaviors: Evidence from the eating in America study.

Although the association between objective markers of low socioeconomic status (SES) and poor health is well established, one underexamined possibility is that over and above objective SES, social class stigma-experiences and anticipation of discrimination based on social class-might undermine people's ability to engage in healthy behaviors. Participants (N = 2022) were recruited between December 2019 and January 2020 via a national Qualtrics panel that was census-matched to the U.S. population in age, gender, income, race/ethnicity, and census region. Participants completed measures of class stigma, alcohol use, disordered eating, comfort eating, sleep disturbance, physical activity, and demographics. Controlling for objective SES and demographics, generalized linear regression models indicated that class stigma was associated with significantly greater alcohol use, disordered eating, greater comfort eating, and sleep disturbance but not less physical activity. Class stigma was not associated with health behaviors after full adjustment for weight/racial discrimination and psychological factors. Results from this investigation suggest that beyond one's objective SES, the stigma associated with having low class may also contribute to poorer health behaviors.

What Does the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status Measure? Separating Economic Circumstances and Social Status to Predict Health.

BACKGROUND: Subjective socioeconomic status is robustly associated with many measures of health and well-being. The MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status (i.e., the MacArthur ladder) is the most widely used measure of this construct, but it remains unclear what exactly the MacArthur ladder measures. PURPOSE: The present research sought to explore the social and economic factors that underlie responses to the MacArthur ladder and its relationship to health. METHODS: We investigated this issue by examining the relationship between scores on the MacArthur ladder and measures of economic circumstances and noneconomic social status, as well as health and well-being measures, in healthy adults in the USA. RESULTS: In three studies (total N = 1,310) we found evidence that economic circumstances and social status are distinct constructs that have distinct associations with scores on the MacArthur ladder. We found that both factors exhibit distinct associations with measures of health and well-being and accounted for the association between the MacArthur ladder and each measure of health and well-being. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that the MacArthur ladder's robust predictive validity may result from the fact that it measures two factors-economic circumstances and social status-that are each independently associated with health outcomes. These findings provide a novel perspective on the large body of literature that uses the MacArthur ladder and suggests health researchers should do more to disentangle the social and economic aspects of subjective socioeconomic status.

Past research has found that people's subjective perception of their own socioeconomic status (SES) is associated with their health and well-being, even after controlling for traditional measures of SES such as income. But researchers still do not know why. One possibility is that subjective SES is simply a different measure of SES. Another is that it measures social status, separate from economic circumstances. We investigated this question using the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status, which measures how people see their place in society. Across three studies using 1,300 adults in the USA, we found that the MacArthur Ladder measures two distinct factors: (i) economic circumstances, as measured by their income, education, housing, etc. and (ii) social status as measured by relative judgements of power, control, social influence, and their standing in their community and society. Both of these aspects of SES uniquely predict health and well-being. Our investigation demonstrates that the MacArthur ladder is good at predicting health outcomes because it measures both economic circumstances and social status. This new insight can help health researchers better understand the effects of social and economic factors on health, and to measure them more precisely.

The roles of inflammation, affect, and interoception in predicting social perception.

"Sickness behavior" is an orchestrated suite of symptoms that commonly occur in the context of inflammation, and is characterized by changes in affect, social experience, and behavior. However, recent evidence suggests that inflammation may not always produce the same set of sickness behavior (e.g., fatigue, anhedonia, and social withdrawal). Rather, inflammation may be linked with different behavior across contexts and/or across individuals, though research in this area is under-developed to-date. In the present study (n = 30), we evaluated the influence of affective context and individual differences in difficulty detecting bodily sensations (i.e., interoceptive difficulty) on social perception following an inflammatory challenge. Inflammation was induced using the influenza vaccine and inflammatory reactivity was operationalized as changes in circulating levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6) before the vaccine and approximately 24 h later. Twenty-four hours after administration of the influenza vaccine, we manipulated affective context using a well-validated affect misattribution task in which participants made trustworthiness judgments of individuals with neutral facial expressions following the rapid presentation of "prime" images that were positive or negative in affective content. Interoceptive difficulty was measured at baseline using a validated self-report measure. Results revealed significant interactions between inflammatory reactivity to the influenza vaccine and affective context on social perception. Specifically, individuals with greater inflammatory reactivity were more biased by affective context when judging the trustworthiness of neutral faces. In addition, interoceptive difficulty and affective context interacted to predict social perception such that individuals with greater interoceptive difficulty were more biased by affective context in these judgments. In sum, we provide some of the first evidence that inflammation may amplify the saliency of affective cues during social decision making. Our findings also replicate prior work linking interoceptive ability to the use of affect-as-information during social perception, but in the novel context of inflammation.

Support-Giving Is Associated With Lower Systemic Inflammation.

BACKGROUND: Support-giving has emerged as a health-relevant social behavior, such that giving more support is associated with better physical health. However, biological mechanisms by which support-giving and health are linked remain unclear. Whether support-giving uniquely relates to health relative to other psychosocial factors is also an open research question. PURPOSE: Two studies test the hypothesis that support-giving is uniquely (over-and-above other psychosocial factors) related to lower systemic inflammation, a biological correlate of health. METHODS: Cross-sectional associations of support-giving with markers of systemic inflammation (i.e., interleukin-6 [IL-6], C-reactive protein [CRP]) were examined in two independent samples of midlife adults (Study 1, n = 746; Study 2, n = 350). RESULTS: Consistent with hypotheses, giving to more social targets (to family and friends, and also volunteering for various causes), but not receiving support from similar targets, was associated with lower IL-6. In conceptual replication and extension with a different measure of support-giving, higher frequency of support-giving behavior was associated with lower IL-6, even after adjusting for social network size and individual differences in social desirability. There were no associations between support-giving and CRP in either sample. CONCLUSIONS: Future research needs to establish causality and directly test mechanistic pathways, but together, findings reaffirm the health-relevance of support-giving behavior and shed light on a promising biological mechanism by which such effects may occur.

Support-giving behavior and health are linked such that more support-giving is related to better health and longevity for the person giving. How such a link occurs, however, is an open question for research. Two cross-sectional studies test the hypothesis that support-giving behavior relates to lower systemic inflammation, a potential biological pathway linking supportive behavior with health. Results of Study 1 show that giving to more social targets (to family and friends, and also volunteering) is associated with lower inflammation. Receiving support was not associated with inflammation. In a replication and extension, Study 2 shows that a greater frequency of giving is also related to lower systemic inflammation, over and above the size of one's social network and individual differences in reporting socially desirable responses. Although more research is needed to establish whether support-giving causes systemic inflammation to change, the current findings highlight a promising pathway by which support-giving behavior benefits health.

Neighborhood disadvantage, race/ethnicity and neural sensitivity to social threat and reward among adolescents.

Experiences within one's social environment shape neural sensitivity to threatening and rewarding social cues. However, in racialized societies like the USA, youth from minoritized racial/ethnic backgrounds can have different experiences and perceptions within neighborhoods that share similar characteristics. The current study examined how neighborhood disadvantage intersects with racial/ethnic background in relation to neural sensitivity to social cues. A racially diverse (59 Hispanic/Latine, 48 White, 37 Black/African American, 15 multi-racial and 6 other) and primarily low to middle socioeconomic status sample of 165 adolescents (88 female; Mage = 12.89) completed a social incentive delay task while undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scanning. We tested for differences in the association between neighborhood disadvantage and neural responses to social threat and reward cues across racial/ethnic groups. For threat processing, compared to White youth, neighborhood disadvantage was related to greater neural activation in regions involved in salience detection (e.g. anterior cingulate cortex) for Black youth and regions involved in mentalizing (e.g. temporoparietal junction) for Latine youth. For reward processing, neighborhood disadvantage was related to greater brain activation in reward, salience and mentalizing regions for Black youth only. This study offers a novel exploration of diversity within adolescent neural development and important insights into our understanding of how social environments may 'get under the skull' differentially across racial/ethnic groups.

Investigating social connection as a protective factor against exam stress in college students.

Objective: To examine social connection as a protective factor against exam stress. Participants: 55 undergraduate students at two universities. Methods: Students were evaluated on an exam day for their hardest class and at baseline, a day in a week where they had no exams. Social connection, salivary cortisol, perceived stress, and cognitive control (measured with the Stroop test) were assessed. Exam scores were later reported. Results: Higher social connection was associated with lower perceived stress on exam day. At a small liberal arts school, higher levels of social connection were associated with higher Stroop scores. This correlation with cognitive control was not significant at a large public university. Conclusions: These findings indicate that social connection may be a protective factor in mitigating perceived stress and cognitive control capabilities may help facilitate reduced exam stress in some school environments.

The affective harm account (AHA) of moral judgment: Reconciling cognition and affect, dyadic morality and disgust, harm and purity.

Moral psychology has long debated whether moral judgment is rooted in harm versus affect. We reconcile this debate with the affective harm account (AHA) of moral judgment. The AHA understands harm as an intuitive perception (i.e., perceived harm), and divides "affect" into two: embodied visceral arousal (i.e., gut feelings) and stimulus-directed affective appraisals (e.g., ratings of disgustingness). The AHA was tested in a randomized, double-blind pharmacological experiment with healthy young adults judging the immorality, harmfulness, and disgustingness of everyday moral scenarios (e.g., lying) and unusual purity scenarios (e.g., sex with a corpse) after receiving either a placebo or the ß-blocker propranolol (a drug that dampens visceral arousal). Results confirmed the three key hypotheses of the AHA. First, perceived harm and affective appraisals are neither competing nor independent but intertwined. Second, although both perceived harm and affective appraisals predict moral judgment, perceived harm is consistently relevant across all scenarios (in line with the theory of dyadic morality), whereas affective appraisals are especially relevant in unusual purity scenarios (in line with affect-as-information theory). Third, the "gut feelings" of visceral arousal are not as important to morality as often believed. Dampening visceral arousal (via propranolol) did not directly impact moral judgment, but instead changed the relative contribution of affective appraisals to moral judgment-and only in unusual purity scenarios. By embracing a constructionist view of the mind that blurs traditional dichotomies, the AHA reconciles historic harm-centric and current affect-centric theories, parsimoniously explaining judgment differences across various moral scenarios without requiring any "moral foundations." (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Lower Socioeconomic Position Is Associated with Greater Activity in and Integration within an Allostatic-Interoceptive Brain Network in Response to Affective Stimuli.

Socioeconomic inequities shape physical health and emotional well-being. As such, recent work has examined the neural mechanisms through which socioeconomic position (SEP) may influence health. However, there remain critical gaps in knowledge regarding the relationships between SEP and brain function. These gaps include a lack of research on: (1) the association between SEP and brain functioning in later life, (2) relationships between SEP and functioning of the whole brain beyond specific regions of interest, and (3) how neural responses to positive affective stimuli differ by SEP. The current study addressed these gaps by examining the association between SEP (i.e., education, income) and neural responses to affective stimuli among 122 mid- to late-life adults. During MRI scanning, participants viewed 30 positive, 30 negative, and 30 neutral images; activation and network connectivity analyses explored associations between SEP and neural responses to these affective stimuli. Analyses revealed that those with lower SEP showed greater neural activity to both positive and negative images in regions within the allostatic-interoceptive network, a system of regions implicated in representing and regulating physiological states of the body and the external environment. There were no positive associations between SEP and neural responses to negative or positive images. In addition, graph-theory network analyses showed that individuals with lower SEP demonstrated greater global efficiency within the allostatic-interoceptive network and executive control network, across all task conditions. The findings suggest that lower SEP is associated with enhanced neural sensitivity to affective cues that may be metabolically costly to maintain over time and suggest a mechanism by which SEP might get "under the skull" to influence mental and physical well-being.

Frontostriatal functional connectivity underlies self-enhancement during social evaluation.

Self-enhancement, the tendency to view oneself positively, is a pervasive social motive widely investigated in the psychological sciences. Relatively little is known about the neurocognitive mechanisms underlying this motive, specifically in social-evaluative situations. To investigate whether positive emotion regulation circuitry, circuitry involved in modulating positive affect, relates to the self-enhancement motive in social contexts, we conducted an functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study in a healthy young adult sample. We hypothesized that self-enhancement indices (state and trait self-esteem) would relate to greater functional connectivity between right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (RVLPFC), a region implicated in emotion regulation, and the ventral striatum (VS), a region associated with reward-related affect, during a social feedback task. Following social evaluation, participants experienced stable or decreased state self-esteem. Results showed that stable state self-esteem from pre- to post-scan and higher trait self-esteem related to greater RVLPFC-VS connectivity during positive evaluation. Stable-state self-esteem also related to greater RVLPFC-VS connectivity during negative evaluation. Moreover, RVLPFC activation during all types of feedback processing and left VS activation during negative feedback processing was greater for participants with stable-state self-esteem. These findings implicate neurocognitive mechanisms underlying emotion regulation in the self-enhancement motive and highlight a pathway through which self-enhancement may restore feelings of self-worth during threatening situations.

Prosocial and Positive Health Behaviors During a Period of Chronic Stress Protect Socioemotional Well-Being.

Behavior that helps, supports, or protects others-or prosocial behavior-has emerged as a health-relevant behavior that can promote the giver's well-being, yet whether prosocial behavior protects against the effects of a major, ongoing chronic stressor warrants further examination. Thus, in the context of the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, we examined whether two types of behaviors-those enacted to prevent the spread of disease to the self and others (positive health behaviors) and those enacted to promote others' psychological and financial well-being (prosocial behaviors)-might protect well-being over time. Using a longitudinal survey method, 745 participants (M age = 62.87 years) reported their engagement in positive health behaviors, prosocial behaviors, and socioemotional well-being (depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, loneliness) approximately two months into mandated lockdown orders in the USA. Three months later, participants again reported their well-being. Results showed that greater self-reported positive health behaviors (e.g., wearing a facemask, distancing from others) was related to decreased depressive symptoms over time, whereas greater self-reported prosocial behaviors (e.g., donating time or money, thanking an essential worker) was related to decreased loneliness over time. Neither behavior was related to anxiety symptoms. Together, results suggest that both doing things for the benefit of others and engaging in positive health behaviors protects well-being, even during times of chronic stress. Findings are however limited by the use of self-report measures. Future research should use experimental and behavioral approaches beyond self-report to verify findings. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42761-021-00095-1.

Inflammatory reactivity to the influenza vaccine is associated with changes in automatic social behavior.

Recent evidence suggests differential patterns of social behavior following an inflammatory challenge, such that increases in inflammation may not uniformly lead to social withdrawal. Indeed, increases in inflammation have been associated with enhanced self-reported motivation to approach a specific close other, and greater neural sensitivity to positive social cues. However, no known studies have examined the association between inflammation in response to an inflammatory challenge and social behavior in humans, nor has past research examined specifically how approach and withdrawal behavior may differ based on whether the target is a close other or stranger. To address this, 31 participants (ages 18-24) received the influenza vaccine to elicit a low-grade inflammatory response. The morning before and approximately 24 h after the vaccine, participants provided a blood sample and completed a computer task assessing automatic (implicit) approach and withdrawal behavior toward a social support figure and strangers. Greater increases in the inflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6) in response to the vaccine were associated with an increase in accuracy in avoiding strangers and a decrease in accuracy in approaching them. Increases in IL-6 were also associated with a decrease in reaction time to approach a support figure, but only when controlling for baseline IL-6 levels. There were no associations between change in IL-6 and changes in self-reported motivation to engage in social behavior with either close others, or strangers. Together, these findings reveal that increases in inflammation following the influenza vaccine are associated with automatic social behavior, especially behavior suggesting avoidance of unfamiliar social targets and ease in approaching a support figure. These data add to the growing literature suggesting that the association between inflammation and social behavior includes both social withdrawal and social approach, depending on the specific target.

The Stressed Brain: Neural Underpinnings of Social Stress Processing in Humans.

As humans, we face a variety of social stressors on a regular basis. Given the established role of social stress in influencing physical and psychological functioning, researchers have focused immense efforts on understanding the psychological and physiological changes induced by exposure to acute social stressors. With the advancement of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), more recent work has sought to identify the neural correlates of processing acute social stress. In this review, we provide an overview of research on the neural underpinnings of social stress processing to date. Specifically, we summarize research that has examined the neural underpinnings of three types of social stressors commonly studied in the literature: social rejection, social evaluation, and racism-related stress. Within our discussion of each type of social stressor, we describe the methods used to induce stress, the brain regions commonly activated among studies investigating that type of stress, and recommendations for future work. This review of the current literature identifies activity in midline regions in both prefrontal and parietal cortices, as well as lateral prefrontal regions, as being associated with processing social rejection. Activity in the insula, thalamus, and inferior frontal gyrus is often found in studies using social evaluation tasks. Finally, racism-related stress is associated with activity in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex and rostral anterior cingulate cortex. We conclude by taking a "30,000-foot view" of this area of research to provide suggestions for the future of research on the neuroscience of social stress.

Brain-body pathways linking racism and health.

Racial disparities in health are a major public health problem in the United States, especially when comparing chronic disease morbidity and mortality for Black versus White Americans. These health disparities are primarily due to insidious anti-Black racism that permeates American history, current culture and institutions, and interpersonal interactions. But how does racism get under the skull and the skin to influence brain and bodily processes that impact the health of Black Americans? In the present article, we present a model describing the possible neural and inflammatory mechanisms linking racism and health. We hypothesize that racism influences neural activity and connectivity in the salience and default mode networks of the brain and disrupts interactions between these networks and the executive control network. This pattern of neural functioning in turn leads to greater sympathetic nervous system signaling, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activation, and increased expression of genes involved in inflammation, ultimately leading to higher levels of proinflammatory cytokines in the body and brain. Over time, these neural and physiological responses can lead to chronic physical and mental health conditions, disrupt well-being, and cause premature mortality. Given that research in this area is underdeveloped to date, we emphasize opportunities for future research that are needed to build a comprehensive mechanistic understanding of the brain-body pathways linking anti-Black racism and health. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

ß-Adrenergic Contributions to Emotion and Physiology During an Acute Psychosocial Stressor.

OBJECTIVE: ß-Adrenergic receptor signaling, a critical mediator of sympathetic nervous system influences on physiology and behavior, has long been proposed as one contributor to subjective stress. However, prior findings are surprisingly mixed about whether ß-blockade (e.g., propranolol) blunts subjective stress, with many studies reporting no effects. We reevaluated this question in the context of an acute psychosocial stressor with more comprehensive measures and a larger-than-typical sample. We also examined the effects of ß-blockade on psychophysiological indicators of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system reactivity, given that ß-blockade effects for these measures specifically under acute psychosocial stress are not yet well established. METHODS: In a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study, 90 healthy young adults received 40 mg of the ß-blocker propranolol or placebo. Participants then completed the Trier Social Stress Test, which involved completing an impromptu speech and difficult arithmetic in front of evaluative judges. Self-reported emotions and appraisals as well as psychophysiology were assessed throughout. RESULTS: Propranolol blunted Trier Social Stress Test preejection period reactivity (b = 9.68, p = .003), a marker of sympathetic nervous system activity, as well as salivary α-amylase reactivity (b = -0.50, p = .006). Critically, propranolol also blunted negative, high arousal emotions in response to the stressor (b = -0.22, p = .026), but cognitive appraisals remained intact (b values < -0.17, p values > .10). CONCLUSIONS: These results provide updated experimental evidence that ß-adrenergic blockade attenuates negative, high arousal emotions in response to a psychosocial stressor while also blunting sympathetic nervous system reactivity. Together, these findings shed light on the neurophysiological mechanisms by which stressors transform into the subjective experience we call "stress."Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02972554.

Beyond social withdrawal: New perspectives on the effects of inflammation on social behavior.

Decades of research in animals and humans show that inflammation is an important regulator of social behavior. While much research in this area has concluded that inflammation causes a withdrawal from social interaction, closer examination of the literature reveals that the effects of inflammation on social behavior are much more nuanced. Indeed, while many studies do show that increases in inflammation lead to social withdrawal, other studies show the exact opposite, finding that inflammation leads to an increase in social approach behavior. Critically, whether an organism withdraws or approaches when inflamed may depend on the whether the target of the behavior is a close other or a stranger. In the present paper, we review both animal research and our initial research in humans that has utilized experimental manipulations of inflammation and examined their effects on social approach behavior. We argue, based on complementary theoretical perspectives and supporting evidence from the literature, that there are three critical next steps for translational work examining the effects of inflammation on social behavior: (1) We need to study actual social behavior, as expressed toward both close others and strangers; (2) We should examine not just the social behavior of the inflamed individual, but also the behavior of others interacting with an inflamed individual; and (3) We must consider the relative increases in inflammation (i.e., higher vs. lower) as a contributor to social withdrawal vs. approach. Ultimately, we urge the field to move beyond a singular focus on inflammation and social withdrawal so that we can develop a more comprehensive understanding of the effects of inflammation on a variety of social behaviors.

A Preliminary Investigation of Psychoneurological Symptoms in Low-Income Mothers.

BACKGROUND: Exposure to chronic stressors may contribute to the development of psychoneurological symptoms (i.e., fatigue, cognitive dysfunction, sleep disturbance, depressed mood, and pain) that can compromise maternal function. OBJECTIVES: In two studies of low-income mothers, we investigated the presence of psychoneurological symptoms and explored associations between mothers' stressors and psychoneurological symptoms as well as between symptoms and function. We also considered the possible mediating role of the symptoms between stressors and function. METHODS: We conducted secondary analyses of psychoneurological symptoms in two studies of low-income mothers of infants and toddlers in the United States. Study 1 sampled Latina women with limited English proficiency, whereas Study 2 was conducted with English-speaking women from diverse backgrounds. In both studies, symptoms were measured using items from the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale and the Medical Outcomes Study Short-Form Health Survey. Maternal function was measured through self-report and researcher observation. In Study 2, stressors were measured using the Everyday Stressors Index. Multiple linear regressions were used to investigate associations while controlling for relevant covariates. RESULTS: In both studies, mothers endorsed a wide range of psychoneurological symptoms. In Study 1, psychoneurological symptoms had significant negative associations with role function, social function, and developmental stimulation. In Study 2, psychoneurological symptoms had significant negative associations with role function, social function, and physical function. Using Aroian test for mediation, we found that psychoneurological symptoms mediated all significant relationships between stressors and maternal functions in Study 2. DISCUSSION: In two samples of low-income mothers, psychoneurological symptoms were prevalent and associated with chronic stressors and with maternal function and may mediate the association between those two factors. These findings extend prior research on depressive symptoms in mothers by investigating pain as an additional key symptom. The studies advance symptom science by highlighting psychoneurological symptoms in a heterogeneous sample without known health conditions.

Neurophysiological contributors to advantageous risk-taking: an experimental psychopharmacological investigation.

The ability to learn from experience is critical for determining when to take risks and when to play it safe. However, we know little about how within-person state changes, such as an individual's degree of neurophysiological arousal, may impact the ability to learn which risks are most likely to fail vs succeed. To test this, we used a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled design to pharmacologically manipulate neurophysiological arousal and assess its causal impact on risk-related learning and performance. Eighty-seven adults (45% female, Mage = 20.1 ± 1.46 years) took either propranolol (n = 42), a beta-adrenergic receptor blocker that attenuates sympathetic nervous system-related signaling, or a placebo (n = 45). Participants then completed the Balloon Emotional Learning Task, a risk-taking task wherein experiential learning is necessary for task success. We found that individuals on propranolol, relative to placebo, earned fewer points on the task, suggesting that they were less effective risk-takers. This effect was mediated by the fact that those on propranolol made less optimal decisions in the final phase of the task on trials with the greatest opportunity for advantageous risk-taking. These findings highlight that neurophysiological arousal supports risk-related learning and, in turn, more advantageous decision-making and optimal behavior under conditions of risk.

The neural underpinnings of intergroup social cognition: an fMRI meta-analysis.

Roughly 20 years of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have investigated the neural correlates underlying engagement in social cognition (e.g. empathy and emotion perception) about targets spanning various social categories (e.g. race and gender). Yet, findings from individual studies remain mixed. In the present quantitative functional neuroimaging meta-analysis, we summarized across 50 fMRI studies of social cognition to identify consistent differences in neural activation as a function of whether the target of social cognition was an in-group or out-group member. We investigated if such differences varied according to a specific social category (i.e. race) and specific social cognitive processes (i.e. empathy and emotion perception). We found that social cognition about in-group members was more reliably related to activity in brain regions associated with mentalizing (e.g. dorsomedial prefrontal cortex), whereas social cognition about out-group members was more reliably related to activity in regions associated with exogenous attention and salience (e.g. anterior insula). These findings replicated for studies specifically focused on the social category of race, and we further found intergroup differences in neural activation during empathy and emotion perception tasks. These results help shed light on the neural mechanisms underlying social cognition across group lines.