Trends and distribution patterns of infant mortality and maternal HIV positivity in South Africa: A decade review (2007 - 2016).

BACKGROUND: The infant mortality rate (IMR) (24 per 1 000 live births) remains high in South Africa (SA), well above the recommended sustainable development goal (SDG) 3 of 12 deaths per 1 000 live births. High infant mortality is a poor indicator of the health of a population and will hamper attainment of the SDGs. OBJECTIVES: To investigate the trends and distribution patterns of IMR between 2007 and 2016 and its association with HIV-positive pregnant mothers in SA. METHODS: This study used a cross-sectional study design by analysing secondary data on infant mortality from the 2007 and 2016 Statistics South Africa Community Surveys (CSs), as well as data from the 2007 National Antenatal Sentinel HIV and Syphilis Prevalence Survey. (Antenatal HIV Sentinel Survey - ANCHSS). Line charts with descriptive statistics were used to detail trends in IMRs, and multiple logistic regression models were used to identify risk factors for infant mortality in the 2007 and 2016 CS datasets. Spearman's rank-order correlation (rho) was used to correlate infant mortality with data from the 2007 ANCHSS. All analyses were performed with Stata version 16.0. RESULTS: A total sample of 87 805, comprising 43 922 males and 43 883 females, was included in the analysis. The results revealed a decline in IMR from 55 deaths per 1 000 live births in 2007 to 32 in 2016. Overall, there was a significant decrease in the mortality rate from 2007 to 2016. The infant mortality proportions by province showed KwaZulu-Natal Province having the highest IMR (17.5 deaths per 1 000 live births in 2007 and 6.3 in 2016). Males had a higher IMR (28 deaths per 1 000 live births in 2007 and 17.7 in 2016) compared with females at 26.7 deaths per 1 000 live births in 2007 and 13.8 in 2016. IMR data from the 2007 CS was correlated with the 2007 ANCHSS (28% HIV prevalence in 2007), using Spearman's rank-order correlation, which showed a moderate correlation of 0.58 (p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The study findings showed a reduction in the trends of infant mortality between 2007 and 2016 in SA; despite the reduction, health inequalities persist. There is a correlation evident between maternal HIV prevalence and IMR in SA. We recommend the use of disability-adjusted life expectancy in SA to measure population health and introduce robust data sets that can better inform policy.

Knowledge of pregnant women regarding prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV infection in Gert Sibande District, Mpumalanga Province, South Africa: A qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: Prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) of HIV helps in closing the gaps for new HIV infections, thereby contributing to achieving the global targets of an AIDS-free generation. OBJECTIVE: To explore knowledge regarding PMTCT among pregnant women in Gert Sibande District, Mpumalanga Province, South Africa (SA). METHODS: The study was performed in two clinics in Chief Albert Luthuli Municipality, Gert Sibande District. It was a qualitative and descriptive exploratory study involving in-depth, one-on-one interviews with pregnant women regarding their PMTCT knowledge and perspectives. RESULTS: The study findings showed that pregnant women from the two clinics have a good knowledge of PMTCT. However, they were not aware that caesarean section can minimise mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of HIV infection. CONCLUSION: PMTCT is important in establishing an HIV-free generation. The study revealed that women had a good understanding of MTCT; nevertheless, additional education is necessary, particularly regarding birthing procedures that minimise the risk of MTCT.

Trends and factors associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes in Zimbabwe, 2005 - 2015.

BACKGROUND: Adverse pregnancy outcomes, including abortions, miscarriages and stillbirths, are common in developing countries such as Zimbabwe. OBJECTIVE: To determine the trends and factors associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. METHODS: This article is a secondary data analysis of three repeated cross-sectional Zimbabwe Demographic and Health Surveys to assess adverse pregnancy outcomes among women of reproductive age (15 - 49 years old) who fell pregnant during the study period. Bivariate and multivariable logistic regression models were applied to the 2015 dataset to determine factors associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. RESULTS: There was an overall increase in reported adverse pregnancy outcomes (stillbirths, miscarriages and abortions) from 2005 to 2015. The percentage of women who experienced adverse pregnancy outcomes among those who fell pregnant in the 5 years preceding each survey rose from 13.4% in 2005 to 13.8% in 2010, followed by a sharp increase to 16.3% in 2015. The multivariable model, belonging to the 35 - 49-year age group, was associated with almost a twofold increased odds of experiencing an adverse pregnancy outcome (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 2.11, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.35 - 3.31, p=0.001). Women currently married/in a union (aOR 4.69, 95% CI 2.64 - 8.34, p<0.001) or formerly married/in a union (aOR 3.56, 95% CI 1.89 - 6.69, p=0.001) had higher odds of experiencing an adverse pregnancy outcome. Not belonging to any religion or being a traditionalist or Muslim decreased the odds of experiencing an adverse pregnancy outcome (aOR 0.58, 95% CI 0.42 - 0.80, p=0.001). Women from Harare (aOR 1.56, 95% CI 1.05 - 2.32, p=0.027), Mashonaland West (aOR 1.59, 95% CI 1.08 - 2.36, p=0.027) and Mashonaland Central (aOR 1.76, 95% CI 1.15 - 2.69, p=0.009) provinces had higher odds of experiencing adverse pregnancy outcomes than those from Bulawayo Province. Women who gave birth for the first time at ≥25 years of age (aOR 3.08, 95% CI 2.27 - 4.16, p<0.001) had higher odds of experiencing adverse pregnancy outcomes. Women who delivered 2 - 4 children (aOR 0.75, 95% CI 0.59 - 0.95, p=0.018) or ≥5 children (aOR 0.51, 95% CI 0.36 - 0.72, p<0.001) were less likely to experience adverse pregnancy outcomes. CONCLUSION: Trends showed an increase in the proportion of women experiencing adverse pregnancy outcomes in Zimbabwe from 2005 to 2015. Advanced maternal age, marriage, lack of religion and living in Harare, Mashonaland Central or Mashonaland West were associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. There is a need to reduce these outcomes through integration of social issues into maternal health programmes, as well as ensuring accessibility and availability of comprehensive reproductive health services that target high-risk groups such as women aged 35 - 49 years.

Prevalence of and factors associated with HIV testing among adolescent girls and young women in South Africa: Evidence from the South Africa Demographic and Health Survey 2016.

BACKGROUND: Adolescent girls and young women (AGYW) remain vulnerable to HIV, with a higher incidence rate than their male counterparts. OBJECTIVES: To determine the prevalence of and factors associated with HIV testing among AGYW in South Africa (SA). METHODS: A cross-sectional design was used to analyse the South Africa Demographic and Health Survey 2016. Only sexually active AGYW aged 15 - 24 years residing in SA at the time of the survey were included. Descriptive statistics were used to analyse baseline sociodemographic characteristics. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression models were used to determine factors associated with HIV testing. Statistical significance was set at p<0.05, and all analyses were adjusted using survey weights to account for unequal selection probabilities. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of HIV testing among sexually active AGYW was 85.2% (95% confidence interval (CI) 83.0 - 87.1). The AGYW who had a history of pregnancy (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 4.47; 95% CI 2.90 - 6.89), were employed (aOR 3.29; 95% CI 1.75 - 6.21), belonged to a middle wealth index (aOR 1.80; 95% CI 1.04 - 3.10), had knowledge about mother-to-child transmission of HIV (aOR 3.29; 95% CI 2.26 - 4.79), had visited a health facility during the past 12 months (aOR 2.93; 95% CI 2.09 - 4.10), or had secondary/tertiary education (aOR 2.04; 95% CI 1.04 - 3.99) had higher odds of HIV testing. CONCLUSION: The study identified an unmet need for HIV testing among sexually active AGYW in SA, especially adolescent girls aged 15 - 19 years. Increasing knowledge about HIV testing, adolescent-friendly services and other offsite strategies are therefore important for this particular key population.

Prevalence and factors associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes in South Africa: Evidence from the 2016 Demographic and Health Survey.

BACKGROUND: Adverse pregnancy outcomes are an important indicator of the overall health of a population and the socioeconomic development of a country. OBJECTIVES: To determine the prevalence and factors associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes among women of reproductive age in South Africa, and to recommend strategies to reduce the burden of these outcomes. METHODS: We conducted a secondary data analysis on women of reproductive age using data from the nationally representative, population- based, cross-sectional 2016 South Africa Demographic and Health Survey (SADHS). We described the sociodemographic characteristics of the study participants and determined the prevalence and factors associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes using the multivariable logistic regression model. We adjusted all our analyses for complex survey sampling using survey weights. RESULTS: There were 8 514 women of reproductive age, of whom 41.2% had fallen pregnant during the 5-year period preceding the survey. The majority (70.9%) were of age 20 - 34 years, 78% had secondary education, 61.6% were unemployed, 65% were from urban areas, and more than 40% of these women were currently living with a man, while 51.5% reported that they had never been in a union. The prevalence of adverse pregnancy outcomes was 14.6% (95% CI 13.2 - 16.1%). The odds of experiencing adverse pregnancy outcomes were significantly higher for those aged 35 - 49 years (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 7.41, 95% CI 3.46 - 15.85) or 20 - 34 years (aOR 2.07, 95% CI 1.02 - 4.18), compared with those aged 15 - 19 years. Women who were currently in a union/living with a man (aOR 1.85, 95% CI 1.41 - 2.43) or formerly in a union/living with a man (aOR 2.66, 95% CI 1.64 - 4.29), compared with those who had never been in a union, had higher odds of adverse pregnancy outcomes. Contrarily, adverse pregnancy outcomes were lower with each additional child delivered or ever born (aOR 0.66, 95% CI 0.58 - 0.75). CONCLUSIONS: We report a high prevalence of adverse pregnancy outcomes among women of reproductive age in South Africa. We recommend addressing factors such as maternal age and currently/formerly living with a man within interventions to reduce the burden of adverse pregnancy outcomes in South Africa.

The prevalence of malaria in the five districts of Limpopo Province, South Africa, 2015 - 2017.

BACKGROUND: In South Africa (SA), malaria is endemic in three of nine provinces - KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga and Limpopo. During 2010 - 2014, SA reported that ~47.6% of all malaria cases were imported. Contemporary estimates for the prevalence of malaria in the five districts of Limpopo Province are limited, with unknown proportions of imported malaria cases. We estimated the prevalence of malaria, and the proportion of imported malaria cases in the five districts of Limpopo, from January 2015 to December 2017. OBJECTIVE: To measure the prevalence of malaria in Limpopo Province, the proportion of malaria cases that are imported and to determine factors associated with malaria from January 2015 to December 2017. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed data routinely collected through the Malaria Information System and Laboratory Information System of the National Health Laboratory Services, and assessed associations with age, sex and district, using a multivariable logistic regression model. RESULTS: From 2015 to 2017, a total of 43 199 malaria cases were reported, of which 3.5% (n=1 532) were imported. The prevalence of malaria in Limpopo Province was the highest in 2017, at 331.0 per 100 000 population. The highest malaria prevalence district was Vhembe, with 647.9 in 2015, 220.3 in 2016 and 659.4 in 2017 per 100 000 population. However, Waterberg had the highest proportion of imported malaria cases 28.5% (437/1 532). In adjusted analyses, ages 15 - 49 years (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 1.58, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.48 - 1.68, p<0.001) and <1 year (aOR 1.55, 95% CI 1.37 - 0.74, p<0.001) were at higher odds of having malaria compared with ages ≥65 years. CONCLUSION: These findings highlight the significant burden of imported malaria in Limpopo Province. There is a need for strengthened surveillance and control programmes in neighboring countries (such as Mozambique, Zimbabwe and Botswana) to reduce the importation and spread of malaria in this region.

Profile of human papillomavirus genotypes in breast and oesophageal cancer patients in Pretoria, South Africa.

BACKGROUND: The association between human papillomavirus (HPV) and cervical cancer is well established, and cervical cancer can be prevented through HPV vaccination. Little has been reported on the association between HPV and breast carcinoma (BC) or oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) in Africa. It is possible that use of appropriate HPV vaccines against genotypes responsible for these cancers may also prevent their development. OBJECTIVES: To investigate HPV genotype prevalence in BC and OSCC patients in Pretoria, South Africa (SA). METHODS: A retrospective cross-sectional study of BC and OSCC patients managed at Steve Biko Academic Hospital from 2015 to 2019 was undertaken. Patient medical records were analysed, and DNA was extracted from their archived pathology material and amplified by polymerase chain reaction before hybridisation for HPV genotypes. RESULTS: There were 101 patients with BC and 50 with OSCC. The prevalence of HPV infection in BC patients was 77.2%, with 35.6% high- risk (HR) genotypes, and that in OSCC patients 90.0%, with 56.0% HR genotypes. The most prevalent HPV genotypes (>20% each) were HPV 16, 70 and 51 for BC and HPV 51, 70, 16 and 82 for OSCC, with 31.7% and 60.0% of patients, respectively, having co-infection with ≥2 genotypes. CONCLUSION: The high prevalence of infection with multiple HPV genotypes in BC and OSCC patients, with HPV 16, 51, 70, 35 and 82 the most common genotypes in these cancers, warrants expansion of the current SA bivalent HPV 16/18 vaccine for girls to include boys, and inclusion of HPV 51, 70, 35 and 82, in order to prevent BC and OSCC as well as cervical cancer.

Prevalence of comorbid disease and associated risk factors among homeless people living in temporary shelters during the COVID-19 lockdown in Tshwane, South Africa.

BACKGROUND: People experiencing homelessness are among the most socially and medically vulnerable populations. OBJECTIVES: To assess the prevalence of comorbid disease and associated risk factors among homeless people admitted to temporary shelters in the City of Tshwane during levels 4 and 5 of the COVID-19 national lockdown in South Africa. METHODS: A descriptive cross-sectional study design was used. The sample was drawn from secondary data on all individuals placed in temporary shelters constructed by Tshwane during levels 4 and 5 of the COVID-19 lockdown (26 March - 31 May 2020). Descriptive statistics were used to summarise data, and a multivariable logistic regression model was applied to determine factors associated with comorbid disease. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of comorbid disease among homeless people in temporary shelters in Tshwane was 28.8% (95% confidence interval (CI) 26.9 - 30.8). There was no significant difference in the prevalence of comorbid disease by illicit substance use (29.9% for users v. 29.5% for non-users; p=0.871). In adjusted analyses, being South African (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 2.06; 95% CI 1.10 - 3.88; p=0.024), being female (aOR 3.73; 95% CI 1.85 - 7.53; p<0.001), being black (aOR 3.43; 95% CI 1.12 - 10.54; p=0.031) or white (aOR 6.11; 95% CI 1.55 - 24.0; p=0.01), and injecting substances (aOR 1.68; 95% CI 1.19 - 2.37; p=0.003) were significantly associated with having comorbid disease. CONCLUSION: The study found a 28.8% prevalence of comorbid disease among homeless people placed in temporary shelters in Tshwane. In adjusted analysis, being South African, being female, black and white race, and injecting substances were associated with having comorbid disease. Strengthening of public health interventions such as needle and syringe exchange programmes, family planning and access to primary care with health education could improve the healthcare of people experiencing homelessness.

Knowledge, attitudes and practices of oral HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) among healthcare workers in the Ekurhuleni District, South Africa.

BACKGROUND: Prevention of new HIV infections is crucial for controlling the HIV epidemic. Despite HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) being one of the highly effective approaches to preventing HIV, and being freely available through primary healthcare clinics (PHCs), the uptake of HIV PrEP in South Africa (SA) is low. OBJECTIVE: To understand knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAPs) of healthcare workers responsible for generating demand for HIV PrEP services, or identifying clients eligible for HIV PrEP services in PHCs in Ekurhuleni District, South Africa. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional interviewer-administered survey among healthcare workers from 45 randomly selected PHCs in Ekurhuleni District. We collected information on participant characteristics and their KAPs regarding HIV PrEP service delivery. KAP scores were developed using a priori cut-off points and participants were categorised into binary levels of KAPs. We performed descriptive and multivariable logistic regression analysis in line with the study objectives. RESULTS: We enrolled 160 study participants from 1 May to 30 June 2022. About two-thirds of the participants (64.4%) were highly knowledgeable about HIV PrEP, and 58.1% self-reported practices that were considered to be good. Notably, 73.1% of participants had negative attitudes toward HIV PrEP delivery. Participants who were aged >50 years had poor HIV PrEP knowledge (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 0.1; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.0 - 0.4; p=0.01) compared with participants <30 years old. Participants aged 30 - 40 years had poor HIV knowledge although their association is not statistically significant. Nurses had higher HIV PrEP knowledge (aOR 11.1; 95% CI 3.8 - 32.4, p<0.001) compared with health promoters. Both nurses (aOR=0.2, 95% CI 0.1 - 0.6; p<0.001) and HIV testing service counsellors (aOR 0.3; 95% CI 0.1 - 0.9; p=0.02) had negative attitudes toward HIV PrEP, compared with health promoters. Nurses had better practices in HIV PrEP delivery compared with health promoters (aOR 2.5; 95% CI 1.0 - 5.9; p=0.04). CONCLUSION: Among the healthcare workers tasked with generating demand and identifying clients eligible for HIV PrEP services, low knowledge of HIV PrEP and negative attitudes towards HIV PrEP may be barriers to the uptake of HIV PrEP. Training healthcare workers on HIV PrEP is recommended.

Factors associated with repeat genital symptoms among sexually transmitted infection service attendees in South Africa, 2015 - 2016.

BACKGROUND: South African guidelines recommend a syndromic approach for the management of sexually transmitted infections (STIs), based on the presence of genital symptoms. However, the guidelines do not prescribe specific indications for microbiology testing for patients presenting with or without repeat genital symptoms. OBJECTIVES: To describe the prevalence of and factors associated with repeat genital symptoms among STI service attendees at primary care facilities. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study at 7 STI primary care facilities participating in the aetiological surveillance of STIs between January 2015 and December 2016. Demographic and clinical information and appropriate genital specimens were collected from participants presenting with vaginal discharge syndrome (VDS), male urethral syndrome (MUS) and/or genital ulcer syndrome (GUS). Repeat genital symptoms were defined as self-reported history of the same STI-related genital symptoms in the preceding 12 months. Multivariable logistic regression identified factors associated with repeat genital symptoms. RESULTS: Of 1 822 eligible participants, 480 (30%) had repeat genital symptoms (25% and 75% in the preceding 3 months and 12 months, respectively). Of those with repeat genital symptoms, the median age was 28 (interquartile range (IQR) 24 - 32) years, and 54% were females. The most common aetiological agents among participants with VDS, MUS and GUS were bacterial vaginosis (n=132; 55%), Neisseria gonorrhoeae (n=172; 81%) and ulcers (n=67; 63%), respectively. One hundred and seven (20%) participants had no detectable common STI aetiology. In the multivariable analysis, repeat genital symptoms were associated with HIV co-infection (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 1.43; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.14 - 1.78), VDS diagnosis (aOR 1.39; 95% CI 1.10 - 1.76), self-reported condom use (aOR 1.56; 95% CI 1.20 - 2.03) and age 25 - 34 years (aOR 1.33; 95% CI 1.03 - 1.71). CONCLUSIONS: Our study found a high prevalence of repeat genital symptoms ‒ a significant proportion without STI aetiology. Identified factors of repeat genital symptoms highlight the need for improved integration of HIV and STI prevention and management. Further research is needed to determine the aetiology of repeat genital symptoms and the contribution of non-STI causes.

Comparing laboratory surveillance with the notifiable diseases surveillance system in South Africa.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to compare laboratory surveillance with the notifiable diseases surveillance system (NDSS) in South Africa. METHODS: Data on three tracer notifiable diseases - measles, meningococcal meningitis, and typhoid - were compared to assess data quality, stability, representativeness, sensitivity and positive predictive value (PPV), using the Wilcoxon and Chi-square tests, at the 5% significance level. RESULTS: For all three diseases, fewer cases were notified than confirmed in the laboratory. Completeness for the laboratory system was higher for measles (63% vs. 47%, p<0.001) and meningococcal meningitis (63% vs. 57%, p<0.001), but not for typhoid (60% vs. 63%, p=0.082). Stability was higher for the laboratory (all 100%) compared to notified measles (24%, p<0.001), meningococcal meningitis (74%, p<0.001), and typhoid (36%, p<0.001). Representativeness was also higher for the laboratory (all 100%) than for notified measles (67%, p=0.058), meningococcal meningitis (56%, p=0.023), and typhoid (44%, p=0.009). The sensitivity of the NDSS was 50%, 98%, and 93%, and the PPV was 20%, 57%, and 81% for measles, meningococcal meningitis, and typhoid, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Compared to laboratory surveillance, the NDSS performed poorly on most system attributes. Revitalization of the NDSS in South Africa is recommended to address the completeness, stability, and representativeness of the system.

Survey of the perceptions of key stakeholders on the attributes of the South African Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System.

BACKGROUND: An effective and efficient notifiable diseases surveillance system (NDSS) is essential for a rapid response to disease outbreaks, and the identification of priority diseases that may cause national, regional or public health emergencies of international concern (PHEICs). Regular assessments of country-based surveillance system are needed to enable countries to respond to outbreaks before they become PHEICs. As part of a broader evaluation of the NDSS in South Africa, the aim of the study was to determine the perceptions of key stakeholders on the national NDSS attributes of acceptability, flexibility, simplicity, timeliness and usefulness. METHODS: During 2015, we conducted a nationally representative cross-sectional survey of communicable diseases coordinators and surveillance officers, as well as members of NDSS committees. Individuals with less than 1 year experience of the NDSS were excluded. Consenting participants completed a self-administered questionnaire. The questionnaire elicited information on demographic information and perceptions of the NDSS attributes. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and the unconditional logistic regression model. RESULTS: Most stakeholders interviewed (53 %, 60/114) were involved in disease control and response. The median number of years of experience with the NDSS was 11 years (inter-quartile range (IQR): 5 to 20 years). Regarding the NDSS attributes, 25 % of the stakeholders perceived the system to be acceptable, 51 % to be flexible, 45 % to be timely, 61 % to be useful, and 74 % to be simple. Health management stakeholders perceived the system to be more useful and timely compared to the other stakeholders. Those with more years of experience were less likely to perceive the NDSS system as acceptable (OR 0.91, 95 % CI: 0.84-1.00, p = 0.041); those in disease detection were less likely to perceive it as timely (OR 0.10, 95 % CI: 0.01-0.96, p = 0.046) and those participating in National Outbreak Response Team were less likely to perceive it as useful (OR 0.38, 95 % CI: 0.16-0.93, p = 0.034). CONCLUSION: The overall poor perceptions of key stakeholder on the system attributes are a cause for concern. The study findings should inform the revitalisation and reform of the NDSS in South Africa, done in consultation and partnership with the key stakeholders.

Rise in rifampicin-monoresistant tuberculosis in Western Cape, South Africa.

SETTING: Brewelskloof Hospital, Western Cape, South Africa. OBJECTIVES: To verify the perceived increase in rifampicin monoresistant tuberculosis (RMR-TB) in the Cape Winelands-Overberg region and to identify potential risk factors. DESIGN: A retrospective descriptive study of trends in RMR-TB over a 5-year period (2004-2008), followed by a case-control study of RMR and isoniazid (INH) monoresistant TB cases, diagnosed from April 2007 to March 2009, to assess for risk factors. RESULTS: The total number of RMR-TB cases more than tripled, from 31 in 2004 to 98 in 2008. The calculated doubling time was 1.63 years (95%CI 1.18-2.66). For the assessment of risk factors, 95 RMR-TB cases were objectively verified on genotypic and phenotypic analysis. Of 108 specimens genotypically identified as RMR cases, 13 (12%) were misidentified, multidrug-resistant TB. On multivariate analysis, previous use of antiretroviral therapy (OR 6.4, 95%CI 1.3-31.8), alcohol use (OR 4.8, 95%CI 2.0-11.3) and age ≥ 40 years (OR 5.8, 95%CI 2.4-13.6) were significantly associated with RMR-TB. CONCLUSION: RMR-TB is rapidly increasing in the study setting, particularly among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease. Routine drug susceptibility testing should be considered in all TB-HIV co-infected patients, and absence of INH resistance should be confirmed phenotypically if genotypic RMR-TB is detected.

A meta analysis of the prevalence of spinal pain among dentists.

INTRODUCTION: Physical exertion among dentists seems to put them at increased risk for the occurrence of spinal pain. OBJECTIVE: To assess the prevalence of spinal pain among dentists by performing a systematic review and meta-analysis. METHODS: A systematic-literature search was conducted on prevalence of spinal pain among dentists. The databases searched were CINAHL, MEDLINE, Science Direct, CENTRAL (The Cochrane Library), ProQuest: Science Journals, and PsyclNFO. A standardised data extraction form was used to extract data. Prevalence proportions were pooled by meta-analysis. RESULTS: The search yielded 936 studies. Eight articles met the inclusion criteria. The meta-analysis yielded a combined prevalence of 53.90% (95% Cl: 41.96 to 65.84%) for thoracic-lumbar pain, 41.23% (95% CI: 27.52 to 54.93%) for lower back pain and 41.39% (95% CI: 27.81 to 54.98%) for neck pain. There was, however, a considerable heterogeneity between studies. CONCLUSION: Ergonomic interventions including exercise and therapeutically based preventative measures may have an impact on reducing high prevalence of spinal pain.