Programme science in action: lessons from an observational study of HIV prevention programming for key populations in Lusaka, Zambia.

INTRODUCTION: Optimizing uptake of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for individuals at risk of HIV acquisition has been challenging despite clear scientific evidence and normative guidelines, particularly for key populations (KPs) such as men who have sex with men (MSM), female sex workers (FSWs), transgender (TG) people and persons who inject drugs (PWID). Applying an iterative Programme Science cycle, building on the effective programme coverage framework, we describe the approach used by the Centre for Infectious Disease Research in Zambia (CIDRZ) to scale up PrEP delivery and address inequities in PrEP access for KP in Lusaka, Zambia. METHODS: In 2019, CIDRZ partnered with 10 local KP civil society organizations (CSOs) and the Ministry of Health (MOH) to offer HIV services within KP-designated community safe spaces. KP CSO partners led KP mobilization, managed safe spaces and delivered peer support; MOH organized clinicians and clinical commodities; and CIDRZ provided technical oversight. In December 2021, we introduced a community-based intervention focused on PrEP delivery in venues where KP socialize. We collected routine programme data from September 2019 to June 2023 using programme-specific tools and the national electronic health record. We estimated the before-after effects of our intervention on PrEP uptake, continuation and equity for KP using descriptive statistics and interrupted time series regression, and used mixed-effects regression to estimate marginal probabilities of PrEP continuity. RESULTS: Most (25,658) of the 38,307 (67.0%) Key Population Investment Fund beneficiaries were reached with HIV prevention services at community-based venues. In total, 23,527 (61.4%) received HIV testing services, with 15,508 (65.9%) testing HIV negative and found PrEP eligible, and 15,241 (98.3%) initiating PrEP. Across all programme quarters and KP types, PrEP uptake was >90%. After introducing venue-based PrEP delivery, PrEP uptake (98.7% after vs. 96.5% before, p < 0.001) and the number of initiations (p = 0.014) increased significantly. The proportion of KP with ≥1 PrEP continuation visit within 6 months of initiation was unchanged post-intervention (46.7%, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 45.7%, 47.6%) versus pre-intervention (47.2%, 95% CI: 45.4%, 49.1%). CONCLUSIONS: Applying Programme Science principles, we demonstrate how decentralizing HIV prevention services to KP venues and safe spaces in partnership with KP CSOs enabled successful community-based PrEP delivery beyond the reach of traditional facility-based services.

Evaluating a multifaceted implementation strategy and package of evidence-based interventions based on WHO PEN for people living with HIV and cardiometabolic conditions in Lusaka, Zambia: protocol for the TASKPEN hybrid effectiveness-implementation stepped wedge cluster randomized trial.

BACKGROUND: Despite increasing morbidity and mortality from non-communicable diseases (NCD) globally, health systems in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) have limited capacity to address these chronic conditions, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). There is an urgent need, therefore, to respond to NCDs in SSA, beginning by applying lessons learned from the first global response to any chronic disease-HIV-to tackle the leading cardiometabolic killers of people living with HIV (PLHIV). We have developed a feasible and acceptable package of evidence-based interventions and a multi-faceted implementation strategy, known as "TASKPEN," that has been adapted to the Zambian setting to address hypertension, diabetes, and dyslipidemia. The TASKPEN multifaceted implementation strategy focuses on reorganizing service delivery for integrated HIV-NCD care and features task-shifting, practice facilitation, and leveraging HIV platforms for NCD care. We propose a hybrid type II effectiveness-implementation stepped-wedge cluster randomized trial to evaluate the effects of TASKPEN on clinical and implementation outcomes, including dual control of HIV and cardiometabolic NCDs, as well as quality of life, intervention reach, and cost-effectiveness. METHODS: The trial will be conducted in 12 urban health facilities in Lusaka, Zambia over a 30-month period. Clinical outcomes will be assessed via surveys with PLHIV accessing routine HIV services, and a prospective cohort of PLHIV with cardiometabolic comorbidities nested within the larger trial. We will also collect data using mixed methods, including in-depth interviews, questionnaires, focus group discussions, and structured observations, and estimate cost-effectiveness through time-and-motion studies and other costing methods, to understand implementation outcomes according to Proctor's Outcomes for Implementation Research, the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research, and selected dimensions of RE-AIM. DISCUSSION: Findings from this study will be used to make discrete, actionable, and context-specific recommendations in Zambia and the region for integrating cardiometabolic NCD care into national HIV treatment programs. While the TASKPEN study focuses on cardiometabolic NCDs in PLHIV, the multifaceted implementation strategy studied will be relevant to other NCDs and to people without HIV. It is expected that the trial will generate new insights that enable delivery of high-quality integrated HIV-NCD care, which may improve cardiovascular morbidity and viral suppression for PLHIV in SSA. This study was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT05950919).

An exploration of multi-level factors affecting routine linkage to HIV care in Zambia's PEPFAR-supported treatment program in the treat all era.

Multiple steps from HIV diagnosis to treatment initiation and confirmed engagement with the health system are required for people living with HIV to establish full linkage to care in the modern treat all era. We undertook a qualitative study to gain an in-depth understanding of the impeding and enabling factors at each step of this linkage pathway. In-depth interviews were conducted with fifty-eight people living with HIV recruited from ten routine HIV care settings supported by the U.S. President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) in Lusaka, Zambia. Using a semi-structured interview guide informed by an established conceptual framework for linkage to care, questions explored the reasons behind late, missed, and early linkage into HIV treatment, as well as factors influencing the decision to silently transfer to a different clinic after an HIV diagnosis. We identified previously established and intersecting barriers of internal and external HIV-related stigma, concerns about ART side effects, substance use, uncertainties for the future, and a perceived lack of partner and social support that impeded linkage to care at every step of the linkage pathway. However, we also uncovered newer themes specific to the current test and treat era related to the rapidity of ART initiation and insufficient patient-centered post-test counseling that appeared to exacerbate these well-known barriers, including callous health workers and limited time to process a new HIV diagnosis before treatment. Long travel distance to the clinic where they were diagnosed was the most common reason for silently transferring to another clinic for treatment. On the other hand, individual resilience, quality counseling, patient-centered health workers, and a supportive and empathetic social network mitigated these barriers. These findings highlight potential areas for strengthening linkage to care and addressing early treatment interruption and silent transfer in the test and treat era in Zambia.

"I Have to Do It in Secrecy": Provider Perspectives on HIV Service Delivery and Quality of Care for Key Populations in Zambia.

ABSTRACT: Key populations (KPs) experience suboptimal outcomes along the HIV care and prevention continua, but there is limited study of the challenges service providers encounter delivering HIV services to KPs, particularly in settings like Zambia, where provision of these services remains legally ambiguous. Seventy-seven providers completed in-depth interviews exploring constraints to HIV service delivery for KPs and recommendations for improving access and care quality. Thematic analysis identified salient challenges and opportunities to service delivery and quality of care for KPs, spanning interpersonal, institutional, and structural domains. Limited provider training in KP-specific needs was perceived to influence KP disclosure patterns in clinical settings, impeding service quality. The criminalization of KP sexual and drug use behaviors, coupled with perceived institutional and legal ambiguities to providing HIV services to KPs, cultivated unwelcoming service delivery environments for KPs. Findings elucidate opportunities for improving HIV service delivery/quality, from decentralized care to expanded legal protections for KPs and service providers.

Experiences of Justice-Involved People Transitioning to HIV Care in the Community After Prison Release in Lusaka, Zambia: A Qualitative Study.

INTRODUCTION: In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), incarcerated people experience a higher HIV burden than the general population. While access to HIV care and treatment for incarcerated people living with HIV (PLHIV) in SSA has improved in some cases, little is known about their transition to and post-release experience with care in the community. To address this gap, we conducted a qualitative study to describe factors that may influence post-release HIV care continuity in Zambia. METHODS: In March-December 2018, we recruited study participants from a larger prospective cohort study following incarcerated and newly released PLHIV at 5 correctional facilities in 2 provinces in Zambia. We interviewed 50 participants immediately before release; 27 (54%) participated in a second interview approximately 6 months post-release. Demographic and psychosocial data were collected through a structured survey. RESULTS: The pre-release setting was strongly influenced by the highly structured prison environment and assumptions about life post-release. Participants reported accessible HIV services, a destigmatizing environment, and strong informal social supports built through comradery among people facing the same trying detention conditions. Contrary to their pre-release expectations, during the immediate post-release period, participants struggled to negotiate the health system while dealing with unexpected stressors. Long-term engagement in HIV care was possible for participants with strong family support and a high level of self-efficacy. CONCLUSION: Our study highlights that recently released PLHIV in Zambia face acute challenges in meeting their basic subsistence needs, as well as social isolation, which can derail linkage to and retention in community HIV care. Releasees are unprepared to face these challenges due to a lack of community support services. To improve HIV care continuity in this population, new transitional care models are needed that develop client self-efficacy, facilitate health system navigation, and pragmatically address structural and psychosocial barriers like poverty, gender inequality, and substance use.

Multisectoral, Combination HIV Prevention for Adolescent Girls and Young Women: A Qualitative Study of the DREAMS Implementation Trajectory in Zambia.

OBJECTIVE: To identify solutions to the implementation challenges with the DREAMS (Determined, Resilient, Empowered, AIDS-free, Mentored, and Safe women) Partnership in Zambia, this study examines the rollout and evolution of the DREAMS Partnership's implementation. METHODS: In September-October 2018, implementing partner (IP) staff (n=15) and adolescent girls and young women (AGYW) participating in DREAMS programming (n=32) completed in-depth interviews exploring early rollout and scale-up of DREAMS, experiences with program participation, and shifting service delivery approaches in response to emerging implementation challenges. Inductive and deductive thematic analysis of 47 interviews uncovered salient service delivery facilitators and barriers in the first 2 years of DREAMS implementation, which were subsequently mapped onto the following domains: reach, effectiveness, adoption, implementation, and maintenance. RESULTS: Key implementation successes identified by IP staff included using standardized recruitment and risk assessment tools across IP organizations, using a mentor model for delivering program content to AGYW, and offering centralized service delivery at venues accessible to AGYW. Implementation challenges identified early in the DREAMS Partnership's lifecycle were rectified through adaptive service delivery strategies. Monthly in-person coordination meetings were established to resolve IP staff jurisdictional disputes over recruitment and target setting. To address high participant attrition, IP staff adopted a cohort approach to sequentially recruit AGYW who enrolled together and provided social support to one another to sustain involvement in DREAMS programming. Prominent barriers to implementation fidelity included challenges recruiting the highest-risk AGYW (e.g., those out of school), limited resources to incentivize participation by young women, and inadequate planning to facilitate absorption of individual DREAMS interventions by the public sector upon project conclusion. CONCLUSIONS: Delivering multisectoral HIV prevention programs like DREAMS with fidelity requires a robust implementation infrastructure (e.g., adaptable workplans and harmonized record management systems), early coordination between IP organizations, and sustained financial commitments from donors.

Temporal shifts in HIV-related risk factors among cohorts of adolescent girls and young women enrolled in DREAMS programming: evidence from Kenya, Malawi and Zambia.

OBJECTIVES: To assess temporal shifts in HIV risk factors among adolescent girls (AG, aged 15-19 years) and young women (YW, aged 20-24 years) in Kenya, Malawi and Zambia. DESIGN: Prospective cohorts with two time points (Kenya: 2016/2017, 2018; Malawi: 2017, 2018; Zambia: 2016/2017, 2018) SETTING: Community-based programming. PARTICIPANTS: 1247 AG (Kenya: 389, Malawi: 371, Zambia: 487) and 1628 YW (Kenya: 347, Malawi: 883, Zambia: 398) INTERVENTION: Determined, Resilient, Empowered, AIDS-free, Mentored and Safe (DREAMS), a multisectoral approach to reduce AGYW's HIV vulnerability by delivering a package of tailored, multilayered activities and services.Primary and secondary outcome measures: HIV testing, sexually transmitted infection (STI) symptom experience, number of sexual partners, condom use (consistently, at last sex), transactional sex, experience of physical violence (from intimate partners) and sexual violence (from intimate partners and strangers/non-partners). RESULTS: Changes in HIV-related risk behaviours among DREAMS participants varied by age group and country. Among AG, HIV testing increased (Kenya and Zambia) and sexual violence from partners (in Kenya and Malawi) and non-partners (in Malawi) decreased. Among YW, HIV testing increased and STI experience decreased in Malawi; consistent condom use decreased in Kenya; transactional sex increased in Kenya and Zambia; and physical violence (in Malawi) and sexual violence from partners (in Kenya and Malawi) and non-partners (all three countries) decreased over time. CONCLUSIONS: Improvements in HIV testing and reductions in experiences of sexual violence were coupled with variable shifts in HIV-related risk behaviours among DREAMS participants in Kenya, Malawi and Zambia. Additional consideration of AGYW's risk circumstances during key life transitions may be needed to address the risk heterogeneity among AG and YW across different contexts.

Intersections of financial agency, gender dynamics, and HIV risk: A qualitative study with adolescent girls and young women in Zambia.

Objectives: Recent research demonstrates that economic interventions may positively effect HIV risk among adolescent girls and young women (AGYW) in sub-Saharan Africa. Some evidence reveals potential associations between financial decision-making and bargaining power in sexual relationships. However, this evidence is mixed, nuanced, and limited. This paper explores how AGYW in Zambia understand financial agency and its effect on intimate relationships. Methods: In-depth qualitative interviews were conducted with 30 females aged 15-24 years residing in Kalingalinga, a low income, high-density residential area in Lusaka. Data were analysed using thematic content analysis. Results: Participants spoke of the ability to earn and spend money as reality for some and aspirational for many others, intrinsic to cultural and religious caveats influencing perceptions of agency for women. The transfer of financial independence to sexual agency within relationships was viewed as a mechanism for HIV risk reduction; however, male sexual privilege was an obstacle irrespective of financial decision-making. Conclusions: Programmes aiming to enhance financial agency for AGYW have the potential to reduce HIV sexual risk. Yet, to be most effective, integration with gender-transformative programmes is needed to address norms of male dominance that keep AGYW in positions of vulnerability.

Perspectives of Adolescent Girls and Young Women on Optimizing Youth-Friendly HIV and Sexual and Reproductive Health Care in Zambia.

Youth-friendly health care delivery models are needed to address the complex health care needs of adolescent girls and young women (AGYW). The aim of this study is to explore the lived experiences of AGYW seeking comprehensive HIV and sexual and reproductive health (SRH) care and to elicit their preferences for integrated health care services. We conducted in-depth interviews and focus group discussions in Lusaka, Zambia among 69 AGYW aged 10-20 who were HIV-negative or of unknown status and 40 AGYW aged 16-24 living with HIV. The data were coded through deductive and inductive processes and analyzed thematically using modified World Health Organization (WHO) dimensions of quality for youth-friendly services. AGYW expressed preference for one-stop clinics with integrated services that could provide HIV services along with other services such as pregnancy testing and family planning. AGYW also wanted information on staying healthy and approaches to prevent disease which could be delivered in the community setting such as youth clubs. An integrated clinic should address important attributes to AGYW including short wait time, flexible opening hours, assurance of confidentiality and positive staff attitudes. Youth-friendly, integrated care delivery models that incorporate AGYW preferences may foster linkages to care and improve outcomes among vulnerable AGYW.

Changes over time in HIV testing and counselling uptake and associated factors among youth in Zambia: a cross-sectional analysis of demographic and health surveys from 2007 to 2018.

INTRODUCTION: Zambia is among the countries with the highest HIV burden and where youth remain disproportionally affected. Access to HIV testing and counselling (HTC) is a crucial step to ensure the reduction of HIV transmission. This study examines the changes that occurred between 2007 and 2018 in access to HTC, inequities in testing uptake, and determinants of HTC uptake among youth. METHODS: We carried out repeated cross-sectional analyses using three Zambian Demographic and Health Surveys (2007, 2013-14, and 2018). We calculated the percentage of women and men ages 15-24 years old who were tested for HIV in the last 12 months. We analysed inequity in HTC coverage using indicators of absolute inequality. We performed bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses to identify predictors of HTC uptake in the last 12 months. RESULTS: HIV testing uptake increased between 2007 and 2018, from 45 to 92% among pregnant women, 10 to 58% among non-pregnant women, and from 10 to 49% among men. By 2018 roughly 60% of youth tested in the past 12 months used a government health centre. Mobile clinics were the second most common source reaching up to 32% among adolescent boys by 2018. Multivariate analysis conducted among men and non-pregnant women showed higher odds of testing among 20-24 year-olds than adolescents (aOR = 1.55 [95%CI:1.30-1.84], among men; and aOR = 1.74 [1.40-2.15] among women). Among men, being circumcised (aOR = 1.57 [1.32-1.88]) and in a union (aOR = 2.44 [1.83-3.25]) were associated with increased odds of testing. For women greater odds of testing were associated with higher levels of education (aOR = 6.97 [2.82-17.19]). Education-based inequity was considerably widened among women than men by 2018. CONCLUSION: HTC uptake among Zambian youth improved considerably by 2018 and reached 65 and 49% tested in the last 12 months for women and men, respectively. However, achieving the goal of 95% envisioned by 2020 will require sustaining the success gained through government health centres, and scaling up the community-led approaches that have proven acceptable and effective in reaching young men and adolescent girls who are less easy to reach through the government facilities.

Family Support for Adolescent Girls and Young Women Living With HIV in Zambia: Benefits, Challenges, and Recommendations for Intervention Development.

ABSTRACT: Lack of family involvement is barrier to antiretroviral therapy adherence among adolescent girls and young women (AGYW). This study assessed family support for AGYW's engagement along the HIV care continuum to inform the design of a family-focused intervention in Lusaka, Zambia. We conducted 16 in-depth interviews and four focus group discussions with 40 AGYW living with HIV. Three strategies were identified to strengthen family support. First, emotional and instrumental support are highly valued by AGYW and should be further developed or reinforced. Second, AGYW wanted more informational support and open discussion of HIV from family, and an intervention should aim to enhance these types of support. Third, existing appraisal support reinforced anticipated stigma among AGYW and discouraged disclosure, yet participants wished for more interactions with peers living with HIV. Appraisal support should therefore be reframed to help AGYW decide to whom they should disclose and how to do so safely.

HIV vulnerability among adolescent girls and young women: a multi-country latent class analysis approach.

OBJECTIVES: To stem the HIV epidemic among adolescent girls and young women (AGYW, 15-24 years), prevention programs need to reach AGYW who are most at risk. We examine whether individual- and household-level factors could be used to define HIV vulnerability for AGYW. METHODS: We surveyed out-of-school AGYW in urban and peri-urban Kenya (N = 1014), in urban Zambia (N = 846), and in rural Malawi (N = 1654) from October 2016 to 2017. LCA identified classes based on respondent characteristics, attitudes and knowledge, and household characteristics. Multilevel regressions examined associations between class membership and HIV-related health outcomes. RESULTS: We identified two latent classes-high and low HIV vulnerability profiles-among AGYW in each country; 32% of the sample in Kenya, 53% in Malawi, and 51% in Zambia belonged to the high vulnerability group. As compared to AGYW with a low-vulnerability profile, AGYW with a high-vulnerability profile had significantly higher odds of HIV-related outcomes (e.g., very early sexual debut, transactional sex, sexual violence from partners). CONCLUSIONS: Out-of-school AGYW had differential vulnerability to HIV. Interventions should focus on reaching AGYW in the high HIV vulnerability profiles.

Barriers to provision of respectful maternity care in Zambia: results from a qualitative study through the lens of behavioral science.

BACKGROUND: Recently, a growing body of literature has established that disrespect and abuse during delivery is prevalent around the world. This complex issue has not been well studied through the lens of behavioral science, which could shed light on the psychological dimensions of health worker behavior and how their micro-level context may be triggering abuse. Our research focuses on the behavioral drivers of disrespect and abuse in Zambia to develop solutions with health workers and women that improve the experience of care during delivery. METHODS: A qualitative study based on the behavioral design methodology was conducted in Chipata District, Eastern Province. Study participants included postpartum women, providers (staff who attend deliveries), supervisors and mentors, health volunteers, and birth companions. Observations were conducted of client-provider interactions on labor wards at two urban health centers and a district hospital. In-depth interviews were audio recorded and English interpretation from these recordings was transcribed verbatim. Data was analyzed using thematic analysis and findings were synthesized following the behavioral design methodology. RESULTS: Five key behavioral barriers were identified: 1) providers do not consider the decision to provide respectful care because they believe they are doing what they are expected to do, 2) providers do not consider the decision to provide respectful care explicitly since abuse and violence are normalized and therefore the default, 3) providers may decide that the costs of providing respectful care outweigh the gains, 4) providers believe they do not need to provide respectful care, and 5) providers may change their mind about the quality of care they will provide when they believe that disrespectful care will assist their clinical objectives. We identified features of providers' context - the environment in which they live and work, and their past experiences - which contribute to each barrier, including supervisory systems, visual cues, social constructs, clinical processes, and other features. CONCLUSIONS: Client experience of disrespectful care during labor and delivery in Chipata, Zambia is prevalent. Providers experience several behavioral barriers to providing respectful maternity care. Each of these barriers is triggered by one or more addressable features in a provider's environment. By applying the behavioral design methodology to the challenge of respectful maternity care, we have identified specific and concrete contextual cues that targeted solutions could address in order to facilitate respectful maternity care.

Integrated Care Delivery for HIV Prevention and Treatment in Adolescent Girls and Young Women in Zambia: Protocol for a Cluster-Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Among countries in sub-Saharan Africa, Zambia has one of the highest incidences of HIV. Adolescent girls and young women (AGYW) are a particularly affected group because of their social and economic vulnerability. OBJECTIVE: The goal of this study is to test a multilevel package of interventions at the community and health system levels in Zambia in order to connect AGYW with a source of regular care, which will in turn allow for sustainable, successful implementation of regular HIV testing and adherence to antiretroviral treatment. METHODS: We will adapt prior tools to create the SHIELD (Support for HIV Integrated Education, Linkages to Care, and Destigmatization) intervention to educate and empower Zambian AGYW of 10-24 years of age and their families and to create community-based youth clubs to foster peer support. We will also develop integrated wellness care clinics to offer a youth-friendly environment that provides tailored clinical services. We will perform formative research, including focus groups and in-depth interviews, among AGYW, caregivers, and stakeholders to help inform the development and tailoring of the interventions. A cluster-randomized controlled trial will be implemented in Lusaka, with six clinic catchment areas randomized into three groups: zones with integrated wellness care clinics and SHIELD intervention, zones with only SHIELD intervention, and control zones with no intervention. We will assess HIV testing among the HIV-negative or unknown (HIV-/u) cohort, and retention in care along with viral load suppression will be evaluated in the HIV-positive (HIV+) cohort. We will use in-depth interviews and surveys to collect staff and stakeholder feedback after the trial. Cost-effectiveness of the interventions and return-on-investment impacts will be quantified using a microsimulation model. RESULTS: Interim results are expected in 2021, and the final results are expected in 2022. If this multilevel intervention is successful in establishing a comprehensive care continuum for HIV-affected AGYW, the Zambian Ministry of Health may advocate for expansion to additional settings to support national scale-up. CONCLUSIONS: This integrated service delivery model can also be a platform to implement additional preventive services, so HIV-/u and HIV+ AGYW can receive comprehensive, integrated services. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03995953; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03995953. INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID): PRR1-10.2196/15314.

Quality of care and HIV service utilization among key populations in Zambia: a qualitative comparative analysis among female sex workers, men who have sex with men and people who use drugs.

HIV epidemic control requires improving access and uptake of HIV services by key populations (KPs). In Zambia, the behaviors of female sex workers (FSWs), men who have sex with men (MSM), and people of who use drugs (PWUD) are criminalized, and little information exists about their HIV/STI service use. Using a quality of care (QOC) framework, we compared barriers to and opportunities for HIV/STI service access and uptake among the three KPs. We conducted in-depth interviews and focus group discussions with 314 KP members between July 2013 and September 2015 in eight districts. Poorer QOC was received at public health facilities compared to private, NGOs and traditional healers. Stigma and discrimination, confidentiality, and legal prosecution were barriers to service use and more salient among MSM than FSWs and PWUD. Invasive facility policies were barriers and more prominent among FSWs than MSM and PWUD. Service unavailability was of equally high salience among MSM and PWUD than FSWs. Comfort in the clinic and perceived treatment effectiveness were facilitators for all three KPs. The health care experiences of KPs are not monolithic; HIV/STI service improvement strategies should address the concerns and be tailored to the needs of each key population.

High rates of sexual violence by both intimate and non-intimate partners experienced by adolescent girls and young women in Kenya and Zambia: Findings around violence and other negative health outcomes.

BACKGROUND: While links between intimate-partner violence (IPV) and HIV risk have been established, less is known about violence perpetrated by people other than intimate partners. In addition, much of the research on IPV has been conducted with adults, while relatively little is known about violence experienced by adolescent girls and young women (AGYW). We examined experiences of sexual violence and associated sexual and mental health among AGYW in Kenya and Zambia. METHODS: Using cross-sectional surveys with women aged 15-24 years, we assessed experience of partner sexual violence among respondents who reported a boyfriend/husband in the last 12 months (Kenya N = 597; Zambia N = 426) and non-partner sexual violence among all respondents (Kenya N = 1778; Zambia N = 1915). We conducted logistic regression analyses to examine experiences of sexual violence and health outcomes. RESULTS: Sexual violence from intimate partners over the last year was reported by 19.1 percent of AGYW respondents in Kenya and 22.2 percent in Zambia; sexual violence from non-partners was reported by 21.4 percent in Kenya and 16.9 percent in Zambia. Experience of sexual violence was associated with negative health outcomes. Violence from non-partners was associated with increased odds of STI symptoms and increased levels of anxiety and depression. Results were similar for violence from partners, although only significant in Kenya. While sexual violence from a non-partner was associated with increased HIV risk perception, it was not associated when the violence was experienced from an intimate partner. CONCLUSIONS: AGYW reported high levels of sexual violence from both intimate partners and non-partners. These experiences were associated with negative health outcomes, though there were some differences by country context. Strengthening sexual violence prevention programs, increasing sexual violence screening, and expanding the provision of post-violence care are needed to reduce intimate and non-partner violence and the effects of violence on AGYW.

Setting the research agenda for induced abortion in Africa and Asia.

Provision of safe abortion is widely recognized as vital to addressing the health and wellbeing of populations. Research on abortion is essential to meet the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Researchers in population health from university, policy, and practitioner contexts working on two multidisciplinary projects on family planning and safe abortion in Africa and Asia were brought together for a workshop to discuss the future research agenda on induced abortion. Research on care-seeking behavior, supply of abortion care services, and the global and national policy context will help improve access to and experiences of safe abortion services. A number of areas have potential in designing intervention strategies, including clinical innovations, quality improvement mechanisms, community involvement, and task sharing. Research on specific groups, including adolescents and young people, men, populations affected by conflict, marginalized groups, and providers could increase understanding of provision, access to and experiences of induced abortion. Methodological and conceptual advances, for example in the measurement of induced abortion incidence, complications, and client satisfaction, conceptualizations of induced abortion access and care, and methods for follow-up of patients who have induced abortions, will improve the accuracy of measurements of induced abortion, and add to understanding of women's experiences of induced abortions and abortion care.

Good Health and Moral Responsibility: Key Concepts Underlying the Interpretation of Treatment as Prevention in South Africa and Zambia Before Rolling Out Universal HIV Testing and Treatment.

Gauging community responses to the WHO 2015 recommendation to provide antiretroviral treatment (ART) to all people living with HIV (PLHIV) is critical. There is limited qualitative evidence on the acceptability of this Universal Test and Treat (UTT) strategy or community understanding of the impact of ART on reducing HIV transmission, promoted as Treatment as Prevention (TasP). This article explores early understanding of UTT and TasP in 21 urban communities in South Africa and Zambia in 2013 before a community randomized trial of combination prevention-HPTN 071 (PopART). It draws on participatory research conducted in each community, which carried out group discussions and interviews with 1202 respondents and 203 structured observations. Participants were largely unfamiliar with the concepts of UTT and TasP. They were concerned about an accompanying de-emphasis on sexual behavior change. Treatment and prevention seemed, at first glance, to be experienced separately. With the exception of the prevention of mother-to-child transmission, prevention seldom came into discussions about ART. This was partly because this science had not yet been explained to many and also because it was not an easy fit. Contemplating the link between treatment and prevention, participants emphasized both PLHIV taking care of themselves through good health and preventing disease progression and the moral responsibility of PLHIV to prevent HIV transmission. To avoid igniting moralizing and blaming when introducing UTT and TasP, we should capitalize on the "taking care of yourself" legacy while boosting public responsibility through broad antistigma education and patient empowerment efforts.

Why do marital partners of people living with HIV not test for HIV? A qualitative study in Lusaka, Zambia.

BACKGROUND: Knowledge of HIV status is crucial for HIV prevention and management in marital relationships. Yet some marital partners of people living with HIV decline HIV testing despite knowing the HIV-positive status of their partners. To date, little research has explored the reasons for this. METHODS: An exploratory qualitative study was undertaken in Lusaka, Zambia, between March 2010 and September 2011, nested within a larger ethnographic study. In-depth interviews were held with individuals who knew the HIV-positive status of their marital partners but never sought HIV testing (n = 30) and HIV service providers of a public sector clinic (n = 10). A focus group discussion was also conducted with eight (8) lay HIV counsellors. Data was transcribed, coded and managed using ATLAS.ti and analysed using latent content analysis. RESULTS: The overarching barrier to uptake of HIV testing was study participants' perception of their physical health, reinforced by uptake of herbal remedies and conventional non-HIV medication to mitigate perceived HIV-related symptoms. They indicated willingness to test for HIV if they noticed a decline in physical health and other alternative forms of care became ineffective. Also, some study participants viewed themselves as already infected with HIV on account of the HIV-positive status of their marital partners, with some opting for faith healing to get 'cured'. Other barriers were the perceived psychological burden of living with HIV, modulated by lay belief that knowledge of HIV-positive status led to rapid physical deterioration of health. Perceived inability to sustain uptake of life-long treatment - influenced by a negative attitude towards treatment - further undermined uptake of HIV testing. Self-stigma, which manifested itself through fear of blame and a need to maintain moral credibility in marital relationships, also undermined uptake of HIV testing. CONCLUSIONS: Improving uptake of HIV testing requires a multi-pronged approach that addresses self-stigma, lay risk perceptions, negative treatment and health beliefs and the perceived psychological burden of living with HIV. Strengthening couple HIV testing services, including addressing conflict and addressing gendered power relationships are also warranted to facilitate joint knowledge, acceptance and management of HIV status in marital relationships.

Non-Uptake of HIV Testing in Children at Risk in Two Urban and Rural Settings in Zambia: A Mixed-Methods Study.

This article investigates reasons why children who were considered at risk of HIV were not taken for HIV testing by their caregivers. Qualitative and quantitative data collected in Zambia from 2010-11 revealed that twelve percent of caregivers who stated that they had been suspecting an HIV infection in a child in their custody had not had the child tested. Fears of negative reactions from the family were the most often stated reason for not testing a child. Experience of pre-existing conflicts between the couple or within the family (aOR 1.35, 95% CI 1.00-1.82) and observed stigmatisation of seropositive children in one's own neighbourhood (aOR 1.69, 95% CI1.20-2.39) showed significant associations for not testing a child perceived at risk of HIV. Although services for HIV testing and treatment of children have been made available through national policies and programmes, some women and children were denied access leading to delayed diagnosis and treatment-not on the side of the health system, but on the household level. Social norms, such as assigning the male household head the power to decide over the use of healthcare services by his wife and children, jeopardize women's bargaining power to claim their rights to healthcare, especially in a conflict-affected relationship. Social norms and customary and statutory regulations that disadvantage women and their children must be addressed at every level-including the community and household-in order to effectively decrease barriers to HIV related care.