Cholesterol at ages 6, 12 and 24 months: Tracking and associations with diet and maternal cholesterol in the Infant Cholesterol Study.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: There are indications for tracking of circulating total cholesterol concentration (TC) from childhood to later in life. An increased lifelong TC exposure increases the risk of developing atherosclerosis, however little is known about the determinants of TC early in life. We aimed to describe TC in Norwegian offspring aged 6, 12 and 24 months, and to explore if maternal TC, breastfeeding and offspring diet are associated with offspring TC. METHODS: In this cross-sectional study, mothers of offspring aged 6 (n = 629), 12 (n = 258) and 24 (n = 263) months completed a questionnaire of the offspring's diet and took home-based dried blood spot samples from themselves and their offspring. The mothers and offspring participating at age 12 months also participated at age 6 months of the offspring. RESULTS: Offspring TC showed a wide range in all three age groups. Twenty one percent of the offspring had TC ≥ 5.1 mmol/l. There was significant tracking of offspring TC from 6 to 12 months of age (r = 0.42, p < 0.001). Maternal and offspring TC was positively associated in all age groups (0.20 ≤ ß ≤ 0.40, p < 0.001 for all). Breastfeeding was positively associated with offspring TC at ages 6 and 12 months (0.05 ≤ ß ≤ 0.26, 0.001 ≤ p ≤ 0.03), but not at age 24 months. CONCLUSIONS: The wide range in TC and probable tracking of TC from infancy to later in life highlights the importance of early identification of children with elevated TC who can benefit from preventive measures.

Infant cholesterol and glycated haemoglobin concentrations vary widely-Associations with breastfeeding, infant diet and maternal biomarkers.

AIM: Elevated total cholesterol (TC) and glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) are risk factors for cardiovascular disease; however, little is known about their determinants in infants. We aimed to describe TC and HbA1c concentrations in infants aged 8-14 months and explore the relation between infant TC, HbA1c, breastfeeding, infant diet, and maternal TC and HbA1c. METHODS: In this cross-sectional pilot study, mothers of infants aged 6 and 12 months were invited to complete a food frequency questionnaire and to take home-based dried blood spot samples from themselves and their infants. RESULTS: Among the 143 included infants, the mean (SD, range) concentration was 4.1 (0.8, 2.3-6.6) mmol/L for TC and 4.9 (0.4, 3.7-6.0)% for HbA1c. There was no significant difference between age groups and sexes. There was a positive relation between TC concentrations of all infants and mothers (B = 0.30 unadjusted, B = 0.32 adjusted, P < .001 for both) and a negative relation between infant TC and intake of unsaturated fatty acids in the oldest age group (B = -0.09, P = .03 unadjusted, B = -0.08, P = .06 adjusted). Infant HbA1c was not significantly related to diet or maternal HbA1c. CONCLUSION: TC and HbA1c concentrations varied widely among infants aged 8-14 months. Infant TC was associated with macronutrient intake and maternal TC.

The contribution of snacks to dietary intake and their association with eating location among Norwegian adults - results from a cross-sectional dietary survey.

BACKGROUND: Snack consumption has been reported to increase over recent decades. Little is known about possible associations between snack composition and snack eating location. In the present study, we aimed to describe the contribution of snacks to dietary intake in Norwegian adults and to investigate whether the composition of snacks differed according to where they were eaten. METHODS: Dietary data were collected in 2010 and 2011 using two telephone administered 24 h recalls about four weeks apart. In total, 1787 participants aged 18-70 years completed two recalls. The recorded eating locations were at home, other private household, work/school, restaurant/cafe/fast-food outlet and travel/meeting. RESULTS: Snacks contributed to 17% and 21% of the energy intake in men and women, respectively. Compared with main meals, snacks had a higher fiber density (g/MJ) and contained a higher percentage of energy from carbohydrates, added sugars and alcohol, while the percentages of energy from fat and protein were lower. The top five energy-contributing food groups from snacks were cakes, fruits, sugar/sweets, bread and alcoholic beverages. Snacks were mostly eaten at home (58% of all snacks) or at work/school (23% of all snacks). Snacks consumed at work/school contained less energy, had a higher percentage of energy from carbohydrates and had lower percentages of energy from added sugars, alcohol and fat than snacks consumed at home. Snacks consumed during visits to private households and at restaurants/cafe/fast-food outlets contained more energy, had a higher percentage of energy from fat and had a lower fiber density than snacks consumed at home. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that snacks are an important part of the diet and involve the consumption of both favorable and less favorable foods. Snacks eaten at home or at work/school were generally healthier than snacks consumed during visits to other private households or at restaurants/cafe/fast-food outlets. Nutritional educators should recommend healthy snack options and raise awareness of the association between eating location and snack composition.

Meal types as sources for intakes of fruits, vegetables, fish and whole grains among Norwegian adults.

OBJECTIVE: To study how different meals contribute to intakes of fruits, vegetables, fish and whole grains in a group of Norwegian adults and in subgroups of this population. Moreover, to investigate the consequences of skipping the meal contributing most to the intake of each food group (main contributing meal). DESIGN: Cross-sectional dietary survey in Norwegian adults. Dietary data were collected using two non-consecutive telephone-administered 24 h recalls. The recorded meal types were breakfast, lunch, dinner, supper/evening meal and snacks. SETTING: Nationwide, Norway (2010-2011). SUBJECTS: Adults aged 18-70 years (n 1787). RESULTS: Dinner was the main contributing meal for fish and vegetables, while snacks were the main contributing meal for fruit intake. For whole grains, breakfast was the main contributing meal. The main contributing meal did not change for any of the food groups when studying subgroups of the participants according to intake of each food group, educational level or age. A substantially lower intake of the food groups in question was found on days when the main contributing meal was skipped. CONCLUSIONS: Intakes of fruits, vegetables, fish and whole grains largely depend on one meal type. Inclusion of these foods in other meals in addition to the main contributing meal, preferably replacing energy-dense nutrient-poor foods, should be promoted.

Eating location is associated with the nutritional quality of the diet in Norwegian adults.

OBJECTIVE: To study the association between dinner eating location and the nutritional quality of the specific dinner meal and the whole-day dietary intake and to compare the diets of those consuming ≥25% of energy out of home and at school/work (SOH; substantial out-of-home eaters) with those consuming <25% of energy out (NSOH; non-substantial out-of-home eaters). DESIGN: Cross-sectional dietary survey using two non-consecutive 24 h recalls. Recorded eating locations were at home, other private households, work/school, restaurant/cafeteria/fast-food outlet and travel/meeting. SETTING: Nationwide, Norway (2010-2011). SUBJECTS: Adults aged 18-70 years (n 1746). RESULTS: Dinners at restaurants and other private households were higher in energy than home dinners (P < 0.01). Restaurant dinners contained less fibre (g/MJ; P < 0.01) and had a higher percentage of alcohol consumers (P < 0.05), while dinners at other private households had a higher percentage of energy from sugar (P < 0.001) and a higher percentage of consumers of sugar-sweetened beverages (P < 0.05) than home dinners. Most differences between dinners consumed at different eating locations were also observed in dietary intakes for the whole day. SOH-eaters had a higher energy intake (P < 0.01), a higher percentage of energy from sugar (P < 0.01) and a lower fibre intake (P < 0.01) than NSOH-eaters. The percentages of consumers of alcohol and sugar-sweetened beverages were higher (P < 0.01) among SOH-eaters. CONCLUSIONS: Dinner eating location was significantly associated with the nutritional quality of the diet, both for the specific dinner meal and for whole-day intake. Our data generally point to healthier dinners being consumed at home. SOH-eaters had a less favourable dietary intake than NSOH-eaters.