Prevalence and Correlates of Cryptosporidium Infections in Kenyan Children With Diarrhea and Their Primary Caregivers.

BACKGROUND: Cryptosporidium is a leading cause of diarrhea in Sub-Saharan Africa and is associated with substantial morbidity and mortality in young children. METHODS: We analyzed data from children aged 6-71 months presenting to 2 public hospitals in Western Kenya with acute diarrhea and their primary caregivers, including detection of Cryptosporidium by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and immunoassay analysis in stool samples from both children and their caregivers. Associations between potential transmission sources and child/caregiver Cryptosporidium infection were evaluated using prevalence ratios (PRs). Secondary analyses evaluated host and clinical risk factors of child/caregiver Cryptosporidium infection. RESULTS: Among 243 child-caregiver pairs enrolled, 77 children (32%) and 57 caregivers (23%) had Cryptosporidium identified by either immunoassay or PCR. Twenty-six of the 243 child-caregiver pairs (11%) had concordant detection of Cryptosporidium. Cryptosporidium infection in children was associated with detection of Cryptosporidium in caregivers (adjusted PR [aPR], 1.8; 95% CI, 1.2 to 2.6; P = .002) and unprotected water source (aPR, 2.0; 95% CI, 1.3 to 3.2; P = .003). Risk factors for Cryptosporidium detection in caregivers included child Cryptosporidium infection (aPR, 2.0; 95% CI, 1.3 to 3.0; P = .002) as well as cow (aPR, 3.1; 95% CI, 1.4 to 7.0; P = .02) and other livestock ownership (aPR, 2.6; 95% CI, 1.1 to 6.3; P = .03) vs no livestock ownership. Recent diarrhea in caregivers and children was independently associated with child and caregiver Cryptosporidium infections, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that Cryptosporidium transmission can occur directly between child-caregiver dyads as well as through other pathways involving water and livestock. Additional research into caregivers as a source of childhood Cryptosporidium infection is warranted.

Impact of Childhood Nutritional Status on Pathogen Prevalence and Severity of Acute Diarrhea.

Children with acute and chronic malnutrition are at increased risk of morbidity and mortality following a diarrheal episode. To compare diarrheal disease severity and pathogen prevalence among children with and without acute and chronic malnutrition, we conducted a cross-sectional study of human immunodeficiency virus-uninfected Kenyan children aged 6-59 months, who presented with acute diarrhea. Children underwent clinical and anthropometric assessments and provided stool for bacterial and protozoal pathogen detection. Clinical and microbiological features were compared using log binomial regression among children with and without wasting (mid-upper arm circumference ≤ 125 mm) or stunting (height-for-age z score ≤ -2). Among 1,363 children, 7.0% were wasted and 16.9% were stunted. After adjustment for potential confounders, children with wasting were more likely than nonwasted children to present with at least one Integrated Management of Childhood Illness danger sign (adjusted prevalence ratio [aPR]: 1.3, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.0 to 1.5, P = 0.05), severe dehydration (aPR: 2.4, 95% CI: 1.5 to 3.8, P < 0.01), and enteroaggregative Escherichia coli recovered from their stool (aPR: 1.8, 1.1-2.8, P = 0.02). There were no differences in the prevalence of other pathogens by wasting status after confounder adjustment. Stunting was not associated with clinical severity or the presence of specific pathogens. Wasted children with diarrhea presented with more severe disease than children without malnutrition which may be explained by a delay in care-seeking or diminished immune response to infection. Combating social determinants and host risk factors associated with severe disease, rather than specific pathogens, may reduce the disparities in poor diarrhea-associated outcomes experienced by malnourished children.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis Bacteremia Among Acutely Febrile Children in Western Kenya.

In children, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) frequently disseminates systemically, presenting with nonspecific signs including fever. We determined prevalence of M. tuberculosis bacteremia among febrile children presenting to hospitals in Nyanza, Kenya (a region with high human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and M. tuberculosis prevalence). Between March 2013 and February 2014, we enrolled children aged 6 months to 5 years presenting with fever (axillary temperature ≥ 37.5°C) and no recent antibiotic use. Blood samples were collected for bacterial and mycobacterial culture using standard methods. Among 148 children enrolled, median age was 3.1 years (interquartile range: 1.8-4.1 years); 10.3% of children were living with a household member diagnosed with M. tuberculosis in the last year. Seventeen percent of children were stunted (height-for-age z-score < -2), 18.6% wasted (weight-for-height z-score < -2), 2.7% were HIV-infected, and 14.2% were HIV-exposed uninfected. Seventeen children (11.5%) had one or more signs of tuberculosis (TB). All children had a Bacille Calmette-Guerin vaccination scar. Among 134 viable blood cultures, none (95% confidence interval: 0-2.7%) had Mycobacterium isolated. Despite exposure to household TB contacts, HIV exposure, and malnutrition, M. tuberculosis bacteremia was not detected in this pediatric febrile cohort, a finding consistent with other pediatric studies.

High-risk enteric pathogens associated with HIV infection and HIV exposure in Kenyan children with acute diarrhoea.

OBJECTIVE: HIV infection is an established risk for diarrhoeal severity, less is known about specific enteric pathogens associated with HIV status. We determined associations of selected enteric pathogens with HIV infection and HIV exposure among Kenyan children. DESIGN: A cross-sectional study among 6 months to 15 year olds presenting to two Western Kenya District hospitals with acute diarrhoea between 2011 and 2013. METHODS: Stool was tested using standard bacterial culture and microscopy for ova and parasites. HIV status was obtained from children and mothers. Enteric pathogen prevalence was compared between HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected children and between HIV-exposed uninfected (HEU) and HIV-unexposed. Unadjusted and adjusted prevalence ratios for selected pathogens by HIV status were estimated using relative risk (RR) regression. Age, site, income, household crowding, water source/treatment, anthropometrics, cotrimoxazole use and breastfeeding history were accounted for in multivariable models. RESULTS: Among 1076 children, median age was 22 months (interquartile range: 11-42 months), 56 (5.2%) were HIV-infected and 105 (11.3%) of 926 HIV-uninfected children in whom maternal HIV status was obtained were HIV-exposed. The following organisms were most frequently isolated from stool: enteroaggregative Escherichia coli (13.3%), Giardia species (spp.) (11.1%), Campylobacter spp. (6.3%), enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) (6.1%) and Cryptosporidium spp. (3.7%). Accounting for age, HIV-infection was associated with typical EPEC infection (prevalence ratio 3.70, P = 0.002) while HIV-exposure was associated with Cryptosporidium among HIV-uninfected children (prevalence ratio 2.81, P = 0.005). CONCLUSION: EPEC and Cryptosporidium infections were more common in HIV-infected and HIV-exposed children, respectively. This could explain the increased mortality attributed to these pathogens in other studies. Interventions targeting EPEC and Cryptosporidium may reduce morbidity and mortality in high HIV-prevalence settings.

Water filter provision and home-based filter reinforcement reduce diarrhea in Kenyan HIV-infected adults and their household members.

Among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected adults and children in Africa, diarrheal disease remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality. We evaluated the effectiveness of provision and home-based reinforcement of a point-of-use water filtration device to reduce diarrhea among 361 HIV-infected adults in western Kenya by comparing prevalence of self-reported diarrhea before and after these interventions. After provision of the filter, 8.7% of participants reported diarrhea compared with 17.2% in the 3 months before filter provision (odds ratio [OR] = 0.39, 95% confidence interval [95% CI] = 0.23-0.66, P < 0.001). The association was similar among 231 participants who were already taking daily cotrimoxazole prophylaxis before being given a filter (OR = 0.47, 95% CI = 0.25-0.88, P = 0.019). Educational reinforcement was also associated with a modest reduction in self-reported diarrhea (OR = 0.50, 95% CI = 0.20-0.99, P = 0.047). Provision and reinforcement of water filters may confer significant benefit in reducing diarrhea among HIV-infected persons, even when cotrimoxazole prophylaxis is already being used.