Oral treatment with ß-lactoglobulin peptides prevents clinical symptoms in a mouse model for cow's milk allergy.

BACKGROUND: Prior exposure to partial whey hydrolysates has been shown to reduce the allergic response to whey in mice. This effect was more pronounced in combination with a diet containing non-digestible oligosaccharides (scGOS/lcFOS/pAOS). It is unknown which fractions/epitopes are responsible for this effect. Therefore, the prophylactic ability of synthetic peptides of ß-lactoglobulin with/without a scGOS/lcFOS/pAOS-containing diet to reduce the allergic response in a mouse model for cow's milk allergy was investigated. METHODS: Of 31 peptides, nine peptides were selected based on human T cell data. Mice were pre-treated orally with three peptide mixtures or single peptides for six consecutive days. During this period, they received a control or scGOS/lcFOS/pAOS-containing diet. Subsequently, mice were orally sensitized to whey and received an intradermal and oral challenge. After sacrifice, serum and mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN) were collected for further analysis. RESULTS: Prior exposure to peptide mixtures 1 and 3 significantly reduced the acute allergic skin response to whey. Mixture 2 showed no effect. An additive effect of the scGOS/lcFOS/pAOS-containing diet was only observed for mixture 1. Of the peptides in mixture 1, one peptide (LLDAQSAPLRVYVEELKP) showed the strongest effect on the acute allergic skin response. This peptide also tended to decrease whey-specific antibody levels and to increase the percentages of CD11b+CD103+ dendritic cells and CD25+Foxp3+ T cells in the MLN. CONCLUSIONS: Prior exposure to specific peptides of ß-lactoglobulin reduces the allergic response to whey, which may involve regulatory dendritic and T cells. Combining peptides with a sGOS/lcFOS/pAOS-containing diet enhances this effect.

IgG antibodies in food allergy influence allergen-antibody complex formation and binding to B cells: a role for complement receptors.

Allergen-IgE complexes are more efficiently internalized and presented by B cells than allergens alone. It has been suggested that IgG Abs induced by immunotherapy inhibit these processes. Food-allergic patients have high allergen-specific IgG levels. However, the role of these Abs in complex formation and binding to B cells is unknown. To investigate this, we incubated sera of peanut- or cow's milk-allergic patients with their major allergens to form complexes and added them to EBV-transformed or peripheral blood B cells (PBBCs). Samples of birch pollen-allergic patients were used as control. Complex binding to B cells in presence or absence of blocking Abs to CD23, CD32, complement receptor 1 (CR1, CD35), and/or CR2 (CD21) was determined by flow cytometry. Furthermore, intact and IgG-depleted sera were compared. These experiments showed that allergen-Ab complexes formed in birch pollen, as well as food allergy, contained IgE, IgG1, and IgG4 Abs and bound to B cells. Binding of these complexes to EBV-transformed B cells was completely mediated by CD23, whereas binding to PBBCs was dependent on both CD23 and CR2. This reflected differential receptor expression. Upon IgG depletion, allergen-Ab complexes bound to PBBCs exclusively via CD23. These data indicated that IgG Abs are involved in complex formation. The presence of IgG in allergen-IgE complexes results in binding to B cells via CR2 in addition to CD23. The binding to both CR2 and CD23 may affect Ag processing and presentation, and (may) thereby influence the allergic response.

Relevance of pre- and postnatal nutrition to development and interplay between the microbiota and metabolic and immune systems.

Early-life programming is becoming an established concept that states that the environment during early development affects health and disease in adulthood, probably via epigenetic mechanisms such as DNA methylation, histone modifications, RNA silencing, or a combination. Accumulating evidence suggests that nutrition during pregnancy and early postnatal life is one of the most important environmental cues that programs microbiological, metabolic, and immunologic development. The neonatal period is crucial for the early microbial colonization of the almost sterile gastrointestinal tract of the newborn infant. These first colonizers play an important role in host health because they are involved in nutritional, immunologic, and physiologic functions. Evidence from animal and human studies indicates that the composition of the gut microbiota has an effect on body composition, digestion, and metabolic homeostasis. Furthermore, the functionality of the metabolism develops after birth when the newborn is first exposed to nutrition via the gastrointestinal tract. Exposure to environmental microbial components is also suggested to have a key role in the maturation process of the immune system, and in turn the immune system shapes the composition of the microbiota. Therefore, the use of nutritional strategies to program the microbiota composition to favor a more beneficial bacterial population and to support the development of the metabolic and immune systems may provide a good opportunity to prevent later health problems such as obesity, diabetes, and allergy.

Evidence-based benefits of specific mixtures of non-digestible oligosaccharides on the immune system.

Non-digestible carbohydrates (NDC) are natural constituents of many foods. They are mostly referred to as dietary fibre and are associated with many health benefits mostly connected to gut health. NDC have emerged as a promising nutritional concept to modulate immune function as well. In the world of immunology non-digestible carbohydrates are recognized now as key immunomodulating molecules. Both pharma and food industries realize the enormous potency of these immune active components. Although the mechanisms underlying the effects of NDC on the immune system are not totally clear yet many studies have reported beneficial effects on both mucosal and systemic immunity in humans. The aim of this review is to summarize the available evidence on the immune modulatory effects of specific mixtures of oligosaccharides. Both mechanistic in vitro and in vivo studies have been performed and will be discussed. Finally the potential use of these unique structures will be evaluated.

Anaphylaxis to cow's milk formula containing short-chain galacto-oligosaccharide.

BACKGROUND: On the basis of the proven prebiotic effects of oligosaccharides in cow's milk formula (CMF) in infants, CMFs are supplemented with oligosaccharides. OBJECTIVE: We present a series of 5 cases of cow's milk-tolerant but atopic patients with a history of respiratory allergies. All had anaphylaxis after the ingestion of CMF supplemented with short-chain galacto-oligosaccharide (scGOS). The allergen trigger was investigated. METHODS: Clinical histories were collated. Skin prick tests (SPTs) and basophil activation tests (BATs) were carried out with the eliciting CMF that triggered anaphylaxis, with or without supplemented prebiotics (scGOS) and with scGOS fractions containing oligosaccharides of different chain lengths. RESULTS: The median age of presentation was 6 years (range, 5-38 years). Anaphylaxis occurred within 30 minutes of the first known exposure to CMF supplemented with prebiotics in all patients. Only 1 patient was subjected to oral challenge, which resulted in an anaphylactic reaction. All patients demonstrated IgE sensitization through SPTs and BATs to scGOS and fractions of scGOS containing 3 sugar units or greater but not to cow's milk or long-chain fructo-oligosaccharide. Eight child control subjects tolerant to regular ingestion of scGOS-supplemented CMF and 1 adult volunteer were found to have negative results to scGOS through SPTs and BATs. In addition, in vitro BATs with donor basophils sensitized with sera from 2 of the 3 reported cases showed reactions to scGOS. The scGOS-induced basophil activation was inhibited in the presence of wortmannin, a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitor. CONCLUSIONS: This study describes an unusual form of IgE-mediated anaphylaxis triggered by low-molecular-weight oligosaccharides in scGOS. The primary sensitizer for this phenomenon requires further investigation.

Cow milk allergy symptoms are reduced in mice fed dietary synbiotics during oral sensitization with whey.

Cow milk allergy is the most common food allergy in children. So far, no effective treatment is available to prevent or cure food allergy. The purpose of this study was to compare effects of dietary supplementation with a prebiotic mixture (Immunofortis), a probiotic strain [Bifidobacterium breve M-16V], or a synbiotic diet combining both on the outcome of the allergic response when provided during oral sensitization with whey in mice. Mice were fed diets containing 2% (wt:wt) Immunofortis and/or the B. breve M-16V (n = 6/group). The acute allergic skin response was determined by measuring ear swelling. Antigen-induced anaphylaxis was scored. Furthermore, whey-specific serum immunoglobulins and mouse mast cell protease-1 (mMCP-1) were determined. In mice fed the synbiotic mixture, the allergic skin response and the anaphylactic reaction were strongly reduced compared with whey-sensitized mice fed the control diet (P < 0.01). Immunofortis or B. breve M-16V alone were significantly less effective in reducing the allergic skin response than the synbiotic diet and did not reduce the anaphylactic reaction. The whey-specific IgE and IgG(1) responses were not affected; however, IgG(2a) was greater in all treated groups than in the control group (P < 0.05). Serum mMCP-1 concentrations, reflecting mucosal mast cell degranulation, were lower in mice fed synbiotics compared with those fed the control diet (P < 0.01). Dietary supplementation with Immunofortis, B. breve M-16V, and particularly the synbiotic mixture, provided during sensitization, reduces the allergic effector response in a murine model of IgE-mediated hypersensitivity that mimics the human route of sensitization. This model shows the potential for dietary intervention with synbiotics in reducing the allergic response to food allergens.

Mechanisms of allergy and asthma.

Allergies are the result of an inappropriate reaction against innocuous environmental proteins. The prevalence and severity of allergic diseases has increased dramatically during the last decade in developed countries. Allergen-specific T helper (Th) cells play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of allergic hypersensitivity reactions. These Th cells activate a complex immune reaction that triggers the release of potent mediators and enhances the recruitment of inflammatory cells, which in turn elicit an inflammatory response that leads to the clinical symptoms of allergic disease. The current therapies for allergic diseases focus primarily on control of symptoms and suppression of inflammation, without affecting the underlying cause. However, the knowledge about the pathophysiology of allergic diseases has substantially increased, offering new opportunities for therapeutic intervention. In this review, we will focus on current insights into the mechanism of allergic reactions.

Immunomodulatory properties of mesenchymal stromal cells.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotential nonhematopoietic progenitor cells capable of differentiating into multiple lineages of the mesenchyme. MSCs have emerged as a promising therapeutic modality for tissue regeneration and repair. Further clinical interest has been raised by the observation that MSCs are immunoprivileged and, more importantly, display immunomodulatory capacities. Although the mechanisms underlying the immunosuppressive effects of MSCs have not been clearly defined, their immunosuppressive properties have already been exploited in the clinical setting. The aim of this review is to critically discuss the immunogenicity and immunomodulatory properties of MSCs, both in vitro and in vivo, the possible underlying mechanisms, the potential clinical use of MSCs as modulators of immune responses in vivo, and to indicate clinical safety concerns and recommendations for future research.

Modulation of immune responses by mesenchymal stem cells.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent progenitor cells and interest in MSC therapy has been raised by the observation that MSCs are able to modulate immune responses in vitro and in vivo. Here, we show that MSCs are not intrinsically immune privileged and are capable of inducing memory T cell responses following injection in vivo in immunocompetent hosts. After cotransplantation in recipients that have received sublethal irradiation, allogeneic MSCs can still induce an alloresponse that may result in graft rejection, suggesting that the immunogenicity of allogeneic MSCs are not fully prevented by a nonmyeloablative conditioning regimen. It is still unclear whether the immunogenicity of allogeneic MSCs is also preserved following a fully myeloablative conditioning regimen.

Sarcoma derived from cultured mesenchymal stem cells.

To study the biodistribution of MSCs, we labeled adult murine C57BL/6 MSCs with firefly luciferase and DsRed2 fluorescent protein using nonviral Sleeping Beauty transposons and coinfused labeled MSCs with bone marrow into irradiated allogeneic recipients. Using in vivo whole-body imaging, luciferase signals were shown to be increased between weeks 3 and 12. Unexpectedly, some mice with the highest luciferase signals died and all surviving mice developed foci of sarcoma in their lungs. Two mice also developed sarcomas in their extremities. Common cytogenetic abnormalities were identified in tumor cells isolated from different animals. Original MSC cultures not labeled with transposons, as well as independently isolated cultured MSCs, were found to be cytogenetically abnormal. Moreover, primary MSCs derived from the bone marrow of both BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice showed cytogenetic aberrations after several passages in vitro, showing that transformation was not a strain-specific nor rare event. Clonal evolution was observed in vivo, suggesting that the critical transformation event(s) occurred before infusion. Mapping of the transposition insertion sites did not identify an obvious transposon-related genetic abnormality, and p53 was not overexpressed. Infusion of MSC-derived sarcoma cells resulted in malignant lesions in secondary recipients. This new sarcoma cell line, S1, is unique in having a cytogenetic profile similar to human sarcoma and contains bioluminescent and fluorescent genes, making it useful for investigations of cellular biodistribution and tumor response to therapy in vivo. More importantly, our study indicates that sarcoma can evolve from MSC cultures.

Mesenchymal stem cells inhibit generation and function of both CD34+-derived and monocyte-derived dendritic cells.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are not only able to evade the immune system, but they have also been demonstrated to exert profound immunosuppressive properties on T cell proliferation. However, their effect on the initiators of the immune response, the dendritic cells (DCs), are relatively unknown. In the present study, the effects of human MSCs on the differentiation and function of both CD34+ -derived DCs and monocyte-derived DCs were investigated. The presence of MSCs during differentiation blocked the differentiation of CD14+CD1a- precursors into dermal/interstitial DCs, without affecting the generation of CD1a+ Langerhans cells. In line with these observations, MSCs also completely prevented the generation of immature DCs from monocytes. The inhibitory effect of MSCs on DC differentiation was dose dependent and resulted in both phenotypical and functional modifications, as demonstrated by a reduced expression of costimulatory molecules and hampered capacity to stimulate naive T cell proliferation. The inhibitory effect of MSCs was mediated via soluble factors. Taken together, these data demonstrate that MSCs, next to the antiproliferative effect on T cells, have a profound inhibitory effect on the generation and function of both CD34+ -derived and monocyte-derived DCs, indicating that MSCs are able to modulate immune responses at multiple levels.

Ex vivo culture of human CD34+ cord blood cells with thrombopoietin (TPO) accelerates platelet engraftment in a NOD/SCID mouse model.

OBJECTIVES: Hematopoietic recovery, in particular platelet reconstitution, can be severely delayed after transplantation with cord blood (CB) stem cells (SC). Expansion of CB SC may be one way to improve the recovery, but there is concern that ex vivo expansion compromises the repopulating ability of SC. METHODS: We used a short-term expansion protocol with TPO as single growth factor. The expanded cells were tested in the NOD/SCID mouse model and both platelet recovery and repopulation capacity were examined and compared with unexpanded CD34+ CB cells of the same CB donor. RESULTS: Platelet recovery started 1 week earlier in mice transplanted with TPO-expanded CD34+ cells and at days 5 and 8 after transplantation, 6.2 +/- 2.6 and 13.9 +/- 6.7 plt/microL were observed, respectively. At similar time intervals 0.0 and 1.5 +/- 0.2 plt/microL respectively were detected in mice receiving the unmanipulated CD34+ grafts. This was accompanied by a higher number of CFU-Mk in the bone marrow (BM) 7 days after transplantation. Moreover, the BM engraftment and the lineage differentiation of human cells at 6 weeks after transplantation was similar, suggesting that long-term engraftment was not compromised by the expansion procedure. CONCLUSION: Ex vivo expansion with TPO as single growth factor results in an accelerated platelet recovery in NOD/SCID mice and appears not to affect the long-term repopulation capacity.

Donor-derived mesenchymal stem cells are immunogenic in an allogeneic host and stimulate donor graft rejection in a nonmyeloablative setting.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent progenitor cells that have emerged as a promising tool for clinical application. Further clinical interest has been raised by the observation that MSCs are immunoprivileged and, more important, display immunosuppressive capacities. These properties may be of therapeutic value in allogeneic transplantation to prevent graft rejection and to prevent and treat graft-versus-host disease. In the present study, we examined the in vivo immunomodulatory properties of MSCs in murine models of allogeneic bone marrow (BM) transplantation. Sublethally irradiated recipients received allogeneic BM with or without host or donor MSCs. The addition of host MSCs significantly enhanced the long-term engraftment associated with tolerance to host and donor antigens. However, the infusion of donor MSCs was associated with significantly increased rejection of allogeneic donor BM cells. Moreover, we showed that the injection of merely allogeneic donor MSCs in naive mice was sufficient to induce a memory T-cell response. Although the observed engraftment-promoting effects of host MSCs in vivo support the therapeutic potential of MSCs, our results also indicate that allogeneic MSCs are not intrinsically immunoprivileged and that under appropriate conditions, allogeneic MSCs induce a memory T-cell response resulting in rejection of an allogeneic stem cell graft.

Proinflammatory changes in human umbilical cord vein endothelial cells can be induced neither by native nor by modified CRP.

The role of C-reactive protein (CRP) in atherosclerosis is controversial. It is not clear, either, if the presumed endothelium-activating effect of CRP resides in native CRP (nCRP) or in a conformational isoform of CRP known as modified CRP (mCRP). In the present study we evaluated and compared the effect of nCRP, recombinant modified CRP (rmCRP) and urea-modified CRP (umCRP) on human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). CRP preparations were carefully analyzed by biochemical, immunological and cell biological methods in order to avoid endotoxin or sodium azide contamination as well as inappropriate conformational changes, which together had possibly been the main reason for the previously published controversial results. Neither nCRP nor mCRP showed significant cytotoxicity up to 100 microg ml(-1) at 24 h but high concentrations of CRPs induced cell death at 48 h. rmCRP but not nCRP nor umCRP showed membrane binding to HUVEC by confocal microscopy. However, none of the CRP forms induced intercellular cell adhesion molecule-1, vascular cell adhesion molecule-1, E-selectin expression or IL-8 production. Monocyte chemotactic protein-1 production was weakly inhibited by high concentration of both nCRP and rmCRP, analyzed by sandwich ELISA. Neither nCRP nor mCRP could induce pro-inflammatory changes in the phenotype of HUVECs. Therefore, our present findings do not support the notion that different isoforms of CRP alone have significant effects on inflammation of the vessel wall via an interaction with endothelial cells (ECs), although one cannot exclude the possibility that there may be significant differences among various types of ECs in the response to CRP.

Enhanced engraftment of umbilical cord blood-derived stem cells in NOD/SCID mice by cotransplantation of a second unrelated cord blood unit.

OBJECTIVE: Umbilical cord blood (UCB) is considered as an attractive alternative source of hematopoietic stem cells for allogeneic stem cell transplantations in patients who lack human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-matched donors. However, the low cell dose adversely affects hematopoietic recovery and therefore limits application of UCB transplantation in adults. Transplantation of multiple UCB units could be a strategy to overcome cell dose limitations. MATERIALS AND METHODS: To investigate the effect of double cord transplantation, nonobese diabetic/severe combined immunodeficient mice were transplanted with human hematopoietic progenitor cells (CD34(+)) derived from two UCB units with HLA disparity. Human cell engraftment and donor origin was determined by flow cytometry. RESULTS: Double CB transplantation resulted in increased engraftment levels in the bone marrow and peripheral blood in comparison with recipients of a single unit. Because this effect could be due to the higher cell dose (2.10(5) vs 1.10(5) cells), double CB transplantation was compared with single units containing equal cell numbers (2.10(5)). In some cases, engraftment levels in recipients of single units containing 2.10(5) cells were significantly higher than after transplantation of 1.10(5) cells. These engraftment levels were similar to those observed after double CB transplantation. Chimerism analysis indicated that increased engraftment in recipients of two units was predominantly derived from one unit, whereas in other cases the contribution of the two units was similar. CONCLUSION: These results indicate that engraftment may be enhanced by addition of a second unrelated CB that might be attributed to a cell dose effect or due to a graft-facilitating effect.

Human renal epithelial cells produce the long pentraxin PTX3.

BACKGROUND: Pentraxin 3 (PTX3) is a prototypic long pentraxin with structural similarities in the C-terminal domain to the classical short pentraxins C-reactive protein (CRP) and serum amyloid P component. PTX3 is suggested to play an important role in the innate resistance against pathogens, regulation of inflammatory reactions, and clearance of apoptotic cells. Unlike the classic pentraxins, PTX3 is mainly expressed extrahepatically. The present study was designed to investigate the expression of PTX3 by human proximal renal tubular epithelial cells (PTECs). METHODS: PTECs were cultured in the presence or absence of inflammatory cytokines. PTX3 mRNA expression was measured by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) in human kidney and PTECs. PTX3 protein levels in PTEC cultures were quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). RESULTS: PTX3 mRNA was shown to be constitutively expressed in human kidney. Constitutive expression and production of PTX3 was shown in primary mesangial cells, in primary PTECs, and in renal fibroblasts. Further analysis showed that interleukin (IL)-1 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) stimulation strongly enhanced the expression and production of PTX3 in PTECs in a dose- and time-dependent manner. In addition, activation of PTECs with IL-17 and CD40L, respectively, but not with IL-6 or IL-4, resulted in strongly increased production of PTX3, whereas granulocyte macrophage-colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) inhibited IL-1-induced PTX3 production. PTX3 produced by PTEC is functionally active in binding C1q. CONCLUSION: These results indicate that PTX3 is expressed and released by PTECs and that in proinflammatory conditions PTX3 production is up-regulated. Local expression of PTX3 may play a role in the innate immune response and inflammatory reactions in the kidney.

Opsonization with C1q and mannose-binding lectin targets apoptotic cells to dendritic cells.

Deficiencies of early components of the classical complement pathway, particularly C1q, are strongly associated with susceptibility to systemic lupus erythematosus. Recent data link this predisposal to autoimmunity to an inappropriate clearance of apoptotic cells, which could lead to a loss of self-tolerance. In the present study, we demonstrate that opsonization of apoptotic cells with C1q and mannose-binding lectin allows and facilitates their uptake not only by macrophages but also by human immature dendritic cells (DCs). Both C1q and mannose-binding lectin enhance the uptake of apoptotic cells by DCs in a dose-dependent way. The uptake of C1q-opsonized apoptotic cells, but not nonopsonized apoptotic cells, by DCs stimulated the production of IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-alpha, without an effect on IL-12p70. We conclude that these recognition molecules of the complement system do not sequester apoptotic cells from DCs, but rather promote their uptake by immature DCs. Therefore, we propose that early complement components support safe clearance of cellular debris by facilitating phagocytosis and possibly by immunomodulatory mechanisms, thus preventing autoimmunity.

A regulatory role for complement in innate immunity and autoimmunity.

The complement system comprises a strong defense against various pathogens and is a major component of our innate immune system. While earlier studies have established a crucial role of complement in recognition, opsonization and enhanced phagocytosis of microorganisms by professional phagocytes such as polymorphonuclear leukocytes and macrophages, recent studies delineate an additional role of complement in initiation and maintenance of the acquired immune response. In addition, it seems that opsonization of apoptotic cells by complement may lead to polarization of the response of professional antigen-presenting cells to a more inflammatory or tolerogenic response. The present review summarizes these different contributions of complement to the shaping of the immune balance.

Mini-review: A pivotal role for innate immunity in the clearance of apoptotic cells.

Apoptotic cells can be recognized and taken up by both macrophages and dendritic cells. Phagocytosis of apoptotic cells generally leads to active suppression of cytokine production by professional phagocytes. This is different from the response towards cells that die by necrosis, which induce a pro-inflammatory cytokine profile. Uptake of apoptotic cells involves a large number of receptors and opsonins, which bind to cellular ligands exposed during the various stages of apoptotic cell death. Among the opsonins of apoptotic cells, complement factors, including C1q, and complement-activating members of the pentraxin family play an important role. This is indicated by in vitro phagocytosis studies and supported by the susceptibility to systemic autoimmunity of carriers of genetic deficiencies for early complement proteins. The present review summarizes the role of molecules of innate immunity in the handling of apoptotic cells by macrophages and dendritic cells. It is proposed that C1q and other opsonins prevent autoimmunity and maintain self-tolerance by supporting the efficient clearance of apoptotic material, as well as by actively modulating phagocyte function.

Maturation of dendritic cells abrogates C1q production in vivo and in vitro.

Dendritic cells (DCs) and complement are essential components of the innate immune system. Immature DCs (immDCs) and mature DCs (mDCs) can migrate to lymphoid areas inducing, respectively, tolerance and immune responses. Primary deficiency of complement component C1q (C1q) leads to autoimmunity, suggesting a role in the maintenance of tolerance. In the present study, we investigated the production of C1q by immDCs, mDCs, and macrophages. We demonstrated that monocyte-derived and CD34(+)-derived interstitial DCs are a rich source of C1q. C1q produced by immDCs is functionally active in complement activation and binding to apoptotic cells. The production of C1q is completely down-regulated upon DC maturation in vitro. Moreover, we found that DC differentiation in the presence of interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha) accelerated DC maturation and strongly impaired overall C1q production. Finally, we demonstrated the presence, in significant numbers, of DC-SIGN(+)/C1q(+) cells in T-cell areas of tonsils, next to DC-LAMP(+) mDCs lacking C1q. We conclude from these results that immDC, a cell with tolerogenic properties, is a rich source of active C1q in vitro and in vivo, which is down-regulated on maturation. Therefore, immDCs may be considered an additional source of C1q in humans.