Effects of clinorotation on the polysaccharide content of resynthesized walls of protoplasts.

Changes in cellulose and callose content during cell wall regeneration in Brassica oleracea protoplasts have been examined by cytofluorimetry following their exposure to the conditions of the horizontal clinostat (2 r.p.m.) for 10 days. In comparison with controls, cellulose content decreased 4-fold and 28% of the protoplasts failed to resynthesize a wall in the clinorotated sample. The callose content was almost doubled in clinostated cells. Callose synthesis fluctuated in both control and clinorotated protoplasts. The results support the idea that inhibition of cellulose synthesis in protoplasts grown on the clinostat is caused by a change of plasmalemma fluidity and functioning, and also by a disturbance to the state of cytoplasmic calcium under conditions of simulated microgravity.

Effects of microgravity on the structure and function of plant cell walls.

The structural, biochemical, cytofluorimetric and electron cytochemical features of the cell walls of higher plants grown under weightlessness and simulated microgravity are described. Space flight and laboratory clinostatic experiments with plants show that the ultrastructure of the cell wall, its polysaccharide composition, and metabolic organization depend on the type of tissue and the duration of weightlessness. Horizontal clinostating that reproduced the biological effects of microgravity on cell walls showed that the structure of the external walls of the epidermis of aboveground organs is very sensitive to microgravity. Various responses occur in the primary and secondary walls under weightlessness and clinorotation: rearrangement of cell walls and organelles and changes in the content of cellulose, lignin, callose, and hemicelluloses. It is shown that plant cell wall changes under microgravity are connected with changes in cellulase, pectinase, and peroxidase activity and a change in the calcium balance in the cytoplasm and apoplast.

Possible mechanisms of plant cell wall changes at microgravity.

Space and clinostatic experiments revealed that changes of plant cell wall structure and its function depend on type of tissue and duration of influence. It was shown that clinostat conditions reproduce the part of weightlessness biological effects. It is established that various responses of wall structural-metabolic organization occur at microgravity: changes of cell walls ultrastructure and organelles structure; decrease of synthesis of primary plant cell wall; rearrangements of polysaccharides content. It is shown that mechanisms of plant cell wall changes at microgravity are connected with decrease of cellulose crystallization, activation of pectolytic enzymes and rearrangement of calcium balance of apoplast and cytoplasm.

Effects of microgravity on the structure of leaves cells involved in water transport.

The oppression of plant cells growth and accelerated of their aging and cell structure changes take place during growth of plants at conditions of long time space flight or clinorotation. Such changes reflect the alterations of gravity-sensitive links in plant cell metabolism, of plant polarity and possible of water balance of plants at weightlessness. Because the study of plant cells ultrastructure changes that took part in water transport under microgravity influence was the aim of our investigation.

Clinostation influence on regeneration of cell wall in Solanum tuberosum L. protoplasts.

Regeneration of cell walls in protoplasts was investigated using light- and electronmicroscopic methods. The protoplasts were isolated from mesophyll of Solanum tuberosum leaves and were cultivated on the horizontal low rotating clinostat (2 rpm) and in control for 10 days. Using a fluorescent method (with Calcofluor white) it was demonstrated that changes in vector gravity results in a regeneration inhibition of cell wall. With electron-microscopical and electro-cytochemical methods (staining with alcianum blue) dynamics of the regeneration of cell walls in protoplasts was studied; carbohydrate matrix of cell walls is deposited at the earliest stages of this process. The influence of microgravity on the cell wall regeneration is discussed in higher plants.

The role of cellulases in the mechanism of changes of cell walls of Funaria hygrometrica moss protonema at clinostating.

Using electroncytochemical and biochemical methods, differences between the cytochemical reaction intensity and activity of the cellulosolytic enzymes in Funaria hygrometrica moss cells grown for 30 days in the horizontal clinostat (2 rev/min) and in control have been studied. It has been shown that on clinostating the precipitate amount and size increases with the cellulase activity enhancement in the periplasmic space and protonema cell walls, when compared to control. Using biochemical methods it has been found that the activity of both endo-1,4-beta-glucanase and exo-1,4-beta-glucanase was higher under these conditions. A decrease of cellulose total content, its crystalline form, and pectic substances as well as an increase of hemicellulose content have been revealed in the clinostated material compared to control. Data obtained are discussed regarding the possible mechanism of cellulase activation and synthesis inhibition and cellulose crystallization in plant cell walls at clinostating.

Calcium gradient in plant cells with polarized growth in simulated microgravity.

Plant cells characterized by apical growth, for example, root hairs and apical cells of moss protonema, are a convenient model to address the problem of gravity response mechanisms including initiation of cell polarity. The fluorescent calcium probe, chlorotetracycline, allowed us to display the calcium distribution gradient in these cells. Irradiation by red light led to a sharp decrease in the Ca2+ ion activity in cells. During clinostatting in darkness the pattern of calcium influx and distribution changes inconsiderably as compared with control; in root hairs calcium is detected mainly in their apices and bases as in control. Addition of chlorpromazine to the medium probably increases the influx and accumulation of Ca2+ ions. Under data obtained confirm speculations on the Ca2+ ion functional role for the apical growth of plant cells and may suggest the participation of gravity in redistribution or activation of ion channels, calcium channels included, in the plasmalemma.

Long clinostation influence on the localization of free and weakly bound calcium in cell walls of Funaria hygrometrica moss protonema cells.

The pyroantimonate method was used to study the localization of free and weakly bound calcium in cells of moss protonema of Funaria hygrometrica Hedw. cultivated on a clinostat (2rev/min). Electroncytochemical study of control cells cultivated at 1 g revealed that granular precipitate marked chloroplasts, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, lipid drops, nucleoplasma, nucleolus, nucleus membranes, cell walls and endoplasmic reticulum. In mitochondria the precipitate was revealed in stroma, in chloroplast it was found on thylakoids and envelope membranes. The cultivation of protonema on clinostat led to the intensification in cytochemical reaction product deposit. A considerable intensification of the reaction was noted in endomembranes, vacuoles, periplasmic space and cell walls. At the same time analysis of pectinase localization was made using the electroncytochemical method. A high reaction intensity in walls in comparison to that in control was found out to be a distinctive peculiarity of the cells cultivated on clinostat. It testifies to the fact that increasing of free calcium concentrations under conditions of clinostation is connected with pectinic substances hydrolysis and breaking of methoxy groups of pectins. Data obtained are discussed in relation to problems of possible mechanisms of disturbance in calcium balance of plant cells and the role of cell walls in gomeostasis of cell grown under conditions of simulated weightlessness.

Long clinostation influence on the ultrastructure of Funaria hygrometrica moss protonema cells.

Changes in the ultrastructure of protonema cells of Funaria hygrometrica, cultivated during 20 days on a horizontal clinostat (2 rev/min), were determined by the electron microscopy method. About 20% of the cells were almost identical to those in the control, 20% were destructive cells, and in 60% ultrastructure changes were observed. The heterogeneity of the reaction demonstrated the evidence of sensitive cells on the clinostation process. Changes affected the ultrastructure of plastids, wall of the cell, and the form of the nucleus as well. Starch disappeared from chloroplasts practically completely, thylakoids swelled, granas frequently disappeared from plastids. Peroxisomes number in cells increased appreciably, width of cell walls decreased by almost half their size. Ca(++)-binding sites were revealed in cytoplasma of cells. Electronocytochemical exposure of ATPases activity with the presence of Mg++ and Ca++ ions showed that Mg(2+)-ATPase activity localization in clinosted cells was not too different from the control, while Ca(2+)-ATPase location presented differences in plasemalemma and Ca-sites. These changes are perhaps connected with the membranes permeability breaking and affect the plant cells adaptation to the influence of hypogravitation.

The role of calcium ions in cytological effects of hypogravity.

Electron-cytochemical and biochemical methods made it possible to reveal certain differences in ATPase activity stimulation by calcium ions in root apex cells of pea seedlings and moss protonema Funaria hygrometrica grown under stationary and slow clinostatic (2 rev/min) conditions. It was showed that under clinostatic conditions in comparison with the control variant the ATPase activity decreases in plasmalemma. The protein content in the plasmalemma fraction was also twice as low under these conditions. The root apex cells of the pea seedlings grown under spaceflight conditions were found to contain high concentrations of membrane-bound calcium. The data obtained are discussed in relation to problems of possible mechanisms of disturbance in calcium balance and the system of active calcium ion transport through plasmalemma under hypogravity.

Prospects of autotrophic link functioning in biological life-support systems based on cell biology studies.

On the basis of using of modern methods of cytological analysis the cell growth peculiarities, reproduction and structure of plant cells of different level organisation (unicellular algae, mosses, angiosperms, cell cultures of higher factors--weightlessness, hypogravity, magnetic fields of various intensity, vibration and acceleration were cleared. It is shown that many discovered biological effects of space flight are connected with the degree of complexity of the object organisation and intensified with the increasing duration of influence.

Biological effects of weightlessness and clinostatic conditions registered in cells of root meristem and cap of higher plants.

Research in cellular reproduction, differentiation and vital activity, i.e. processes underlying the development and functioning of organisms, plants included, is essential for solving fundamental and applied problems of space biology. Detailed anatomical analysis of roots of higher plants grown on board the Salyut 6 orbital research station show that under conditions of weightlessness for defined duration mitosis, cytokinesis and tissue differentiation in plant vegetative organs occur essentially normally. At the same time, certain rearrangements in the structural organization of cellular organelles--mainly the plastid apparatus, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus and nucleus--are established in the root meristem and cap of the experimental plants. This is evidence for considerable changes in cellular metabolism. The structural changes in the subcellular level arising under spaceflight conditions are partially absent in clinostat experiments designed to simulate weightlessness. Various clinostatic conditions have different influences on the cell structural and functional organization than does space flight. It is suggested that alterations of cellular metabolism under weightlessness and clinostatic conditions occur within existing genetic programs.

Optical and electron-microscopic studies of the Funaria hygrometrica protonema after cultivation for 96 days in space.

Funaria hygrometrica protonema cells grown in the "IFS-2" (Inoculating fixing system) for 96 days on board the Salyut 6-Soyuz 32 orbital scientific station were examined by light and electron-microscopy. Investigation of experimental and control cells of the moss protonema showed common features as well as distinctions in their structure. Protonema cells of Funaria hygrometrica both differentiate and undergo photosynthesis during space flight. Changes in cell shape, decreased cell size, a reduction in the volume of starch granules, and altered chloroplast structure were observed.